Fig. 3: Contribution analysis of current and future passenger vehicles.

The figure shows a typical LCA for a production year of 2025, and time-adjusted pLCA for production years of b 2025 and c 2035. The selected case study is the China region, Medium SUV size, “Ambitious ( < 2 °C)” climate mitigation scenario, 200,000 km mileage, 15-year lifetime, and hydrometallurgical battery recycling. Potential battery recycling credits outside the system boundary are shown for reference. However, these credits are not used to “reduce” the carbon footprint of vehicles, such as the results in Fig. 2.