Fig. 4: Boxplot statistics of the ecosystems at the landscape class-level.

i.e., Rain-fed cropland (rc), Irrigated cropland (ic), Deciduous forest(dc) and Coniferous forest (cf). The gray, pink, blue, and green box plots respectively represent the dispersion of PLAND and ED index values of different ecosystems in the watershed across 10 × 10 km grid cells in 1985, 2000, 2010, and 2022. The fluctuations of the red solid line indicate the temporal changes in the 50th percentile of the PLAND and ED datasets within the same ecosystem.