Correction to: Communications Earth & Environment https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02833-w, published online 17 November 2025

In the version of the article initially published, the Competing interests statement was incomplete and has now been amended to “Jinfeng Chang is an Editorial Board Member for Communications Earth & Environment, but was not involved in the editorial review of, nor in the decision to publish this article. The other authors declare no competing interests” in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.