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Kelvin probe force microscopy under ambient conditions

Nature Reviews Methods Primers volume 5, Article number: 53 (2025) Cite this article

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Abstract

Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) is a technique derived from atomic force microscopy that provides maps of surface potential or work function differences across material systems, with nanometre-scale resolution. KPFM is a useful tool for investigating electrical phenomena such as dipole orientation, interfacial charge transfer, charge accumulation, band bending and doping levels. This Primer aims to provide an overview of typical ambient-condition KPFM measurements, covering their underlying principles, experimental implementations and wide-ranging applications. Key KPFM variants, including amplitude and frequency modulation, heterodyne detection schemes and innovative open loop and pulsed force techniques, are discussed, with practical guidance on optimizing signal acquisition and reducing errors. Specialized approaches, such as time-resolved KPFM and multimodal KPFM, are discussed for their ability to capture dynamic charge processes and chemical information, respectively. We highlight recent advances in KPFM applications, spanning metal alloys, soft matter, ferroelectrics, photovoltaics and 2D materials, showcasing its versatility across research domains. By addressing current limitations and identifying future opportunities, this Primer underscores the transformative potential of KPFM in advancing the understanding of nanoscale electrical phenomena.

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Fig. 1: Kelvin probe force microscopy fundamentals.
Fig. 2: Schematics of tapping-mode-based Kelvin probe force microscopy variants.
Fig. 3: Operation mechanism of pulsed force Kelvin probe force microscopy.
Fig. 4: Kelvin probe force microscopy measurements on a calibration sample.
Fig. 5: Kelvin probe force microscopy applications on condensed matter samples.
Fig. 6: Applications of Kelvin probe force microscopy in photovoltaic, battery electrodes and biomacromolecules.
Fig. 7: Illustration of stray capacitance and proportional-integral-derivative feedback error.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank B. Kumar for feedback on the text and readability. X.G.X. thanks the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation for support through the Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Award.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA

    Amirhossein Zahmatkeshsaredorahi, Devon S. Jakob & Xiaoji G. Xu

  2. Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

    Ruben Millan-Solsona & Liam Collins

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  1. Amirhossein Zahmatkeshsaredorahi
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All authors contributed substantially to discussion of the content. X.G.X., A.Z., L.C. and R.M.-S. wrote the article. All authors edited the manuscript before submission.

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Correspondence to Xiaoji G. Xu.

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Glossary

1/f noise

Also known as flicker noise or pink noise. A type of noise that occurs in physical, biological and electronic systems, whose intensity is inversely proportional to the frequency, making it dominant at low frequencies and negligible at high ones.

Feedback loop

A system in which the output of a process is fed back into the system as an input, influencing subsequent outputs based on a defined set point.

Heterodyne

Heterodyne detection is a signal amplification technique in which a signal oscillation with small amplitude is mixed with a large reference oscillation to produce a new frequency — usually either the sum or difference of those of the two signals — that is easier to detect than the original signal.

Lock-in amplifier

An electronic device used to extract and measure AC-modulated signals from noisy environment, by amplifying the signal at a specific frequency using a reference sinusoidal waveform and providing a demodulated signal.

Phase-locked loop

(PLL). An electronic circuit that generates a voltage output signal with synchronized phase and frequency to the provided reference input signal.

Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller

A negative feedback mechanism for regulating a process that continuously checks the difference between the measured process variable and an externally defined set point and adjusts the system parameters to minimize it.

Quadrant photodiode

A photodetector comprising four distinct segments (quadrants) — each capable of converting incident light into an electrical current — commonly used to sense vertical and lateral deflections of an atomic force microscopic cantilever.

Transfer function

A mathematical relationship of a system — in the frequency domain — between its input and output, assuming that the system is linear and time-invariant.

TTL waveform

The transistor–transistor logic (TTL) waveform is a binary voltage signal made of a square wave shape sharply transitioning between a high (2–5 V) and a low (0–0.8 V) voltage level.

Work function

The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a material’s surface and move it into a region where it is free of the material’s influence — typically into a vacuum.

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Zahmatkeshsaredorahi, A., Millan-Solsona, R., Jakob, D.S. et al. Kelvin probe force microscopy under ambient conditions. Nat Rev Methods Primers 5, 53 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-025-00424-9

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