Table 1 Representative biohybrid robots grouped by locomotion type, with standardized entries for prototype, bioactuation type, operating modality, and performance metrics for clear comparison across categories

From: Biohybrid living robotics: A comprehensive review of recent advances, technological innovation, and future prospects

Biobot Prototype	Category	Bioactuation unit	Operating modality	Electronics	Force	Performance metrics	Control method	Ref
Muscular thin film robot	Walker, Gripper, pump, Swimmer	NRVCMs	Wired	Pt wire electrodes	1–4 mN/mm²	Walker: 0.13 mm/s Swimmer: 0.05 mm/s	Electrical	⁵
Caterpillar	Walker	Cardiomyocytes	NA	**	**	**	Chemical	¹²
Muscle strip crawler	Walker	Skeletal muscle tissue	NA	**	394.7 ± 56.5µN	156.1 µm/s	Electrical	¹³
Walker 2016	Walker	C2C12	Wireless	**	Up to 300µN	0.312 ± 0.016 mm/s	Electrical and Optical	¹⁴
Polypod microbot	Walker	Dorsal vessel tissue	NA	**	20µN	3.5 µm/s	Autonomous, Electrical, Chemical	¹⁹
eBiobot	Walker	Skeletal muscle tissue	Wireless	Flexible circuit board, NFC chip, Microcontroller, RF antenna	737-1403µN	0.83 mm/s	Optoelectrical	³⁰
Junction bot	Walker	C2C12	Wired	RC pulse system, Pt electrodes	1.4mN	>0.5 mm/s	Electrical	³⁴
Low-Reynold swimmer	Swimmer	Cardiomyocytes	NA	**	1–10uN	5-10 µm/s (1 tail) 81 um/s (2 tails)	NA	⁸
Ray	Swimmer	Rat Cardiomyocytes	NA	**	**	3.2 mm/s	Optical	⁹
Floating-plane	Swimmer	Cardiomyocytes	NA	**	**	0.6 ± 0.2 mm/s	Optical	¹¹
Neuromuscular Junction bot	Swimmer	C2C12+optogenetic motor neurons	Wireless	**	**	0.7 µm/s	Optical	¹⁵
Neuromuscular eBiobot	Swimmer	Cardiomyocyte, motor neurons	Wireless	Flexible PCB, neural stimulation electrodes	**	0.73 mm/s	Electrical	³¹
Horizontal fish	Swimmer	Insect dorsal vessel tissue	Wireless	Transducer	42.7–79.6 µN	0.0117 mm/s	Autonomous	³⁵
Magnet capped sperm-bot	Swimmer	Bovine Sperm	NA	**	**	0.01 mm/s	Magnetic	³⁸
Microswimmer	Swimmer	Serratia marcescens	NA	**	0.5–3.0 pN	0.0024 mm/s	Magnetic	⁴⁹
Chemical driven swimmer	Swimmer	Bacteria	NA	**	**	39.6 ± 12.9um/min	Chemical	⁵²
Antagonistic Gripper	Gripper	Skeletal muscle tissue	Wired	Parylene-coated Au electrodes	Up to 0.3mN	**	Electrical	¹⁶
Atmospheric Operable Gripper	Gripper	Insect dorsal vessel tissue	NA	**	19µN	**	Electrical	¹⁸
Valveless pump	Pump	C2C12	Wired	**	**	**	Electrical	⁵⁷
Adaptive pump bot	Pump	C2C12	Wired	**	**	**	Electrical	⁵⁹

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Table 1 Representative biohybrid robots grouped by locomotion type, with standardized entries for prototype, bioactuation type, operating modality, and performance metrics for clear comparison across categories

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