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Microrobots for pulmonary drug delivery

Nature Reviews Bioengineering (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Pulmonary drug delivery offers several advantages over systemic administration, including localized targeting of diseased lung tissue, rapid absorption through the extensive alveolar surface area, and minimized systemic side effects owing to reduced off-target distribution. These benefits make it a promising approach for treating a range of respiratory and systemic conditions. However, mucociliary clearance, immune surveillance and enzymatic degradation pose major challenges to drug retention in the lungs. In this Review, we discuss microrobotic delivery systems for tackling the challenges of pulmonary drug delivery. We first outline key considerations for the design of microrobots for pulmonary delivery, including propulsion systems, targeting, controlled drug release, overcoming of biological barriers, delivery routes and clearance, and we then highlight applications for lung-related conditions. In particular, we outline biohybrid platforms based on green algae and inhalable platforms for the treatment of pneumonia and lung metastasis. Finally, we examine the engineering of microrobotic swarms and survey future opportunities and milestones for microrobotic pulmonary delivery.

Key points

  • Pulmonary drug delivery enables localized treatment of lung diseases, rapid drug absorption through the alveolar surface, and reduced systemic side effects owing to limited off-target distribution.

  • Biological barriers, such as mucociliary clearance, immune responses and enzymatic degradation, hinder effective drug retention and delivery in the lungs.

  • Microrobotic delivery systems can be designed to overcome these challenges, focusing on propulsion, targeting, controlled release, biological barrier navigation and clearance mechanisms.

  • Biohybrid microrobots and inhalable platforms can be engineered for treating pneumonia and lung metastasis.

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Fig. 1: Pulmonary delivery history and administration routes.
Fig. 2: Challenges in pulmonary delivery.
Fig. 3: Microrobots for pulmonary drug delivery applications.
Fig. 4: Applications of microrobotic pulmonary drug delivery.
Fig. 5: Multifunctional smart microrobots.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Aiiso Yufeng Li Family Department of Chemical and Nano Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA

    Zhengxing Li, Hao Luan, Zheng Fang, Shichao Ding, Ronnie H. Fang, Liangfang Zhang & Joseph Wang

  2. Program in Materials Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA

    Zhengxing Li, Hao Luan, Liangfang Zhang & Joseph Wang

  3. Shu Chien-Gene Lay Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA

    Robert Kobrin

  4. Division of Host-Microbe Systems and Therapeutics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA

    Ronnie H. Fang

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Z.L., L.Z. and J.W. conceptualized the topic and developed the outline. Z.L., H.L., Z.F., S.D., R.K., R.H.F., L.Z. and J.W. wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed, edited and approved the paper.

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Li, Z., Luan, H., Fang, Z. et al. Microrobots for pulmonary drug delivery. Nat Rev Bioeng (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44222-025-00381-8

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