Fig. 3: Major mechanisms contributing to antibiotic resistance.
From: Current economic and regulatory challenges in developing antibiotics for Gram-negative bacteria
The figure illustrates key mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Reduced antibiotic uptake occurs when the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria prevents antibiotic entry. Antibiotic inactivation results from bacterial enzymes, such as beta-lactamases, or chemical modifications that deactivate antibiotics. Efflux pumps actively expel antibiotics, reducing intracellular drug concentration and effectiveness. Lastly, modification of bacterial targets, through mutations or chemical alterations, diminishes the antibiotic’s ability to bind and exert effects. These combined mechanisms highlight bacterial adaptations to survive antibiotic treatments, highlighting the complexity of bacterial resistance and the need for innovative strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance.
