Fig. 1: Impacts of agricultural management practices in cropping systems in the short-term.

a and in the long-term (b) and how multiple management tools are used to address the long-term impacts of management activities and maintain crop yields. The actions of the farmer (i.e., leading to the management intervention, often in response to yields or profits) is shown with a dashed arrow, while the knock-on effects of these actions are arrived at by solid black arrows. The positive or negative symbols indicate the direction of the relationship between the two factors (e.g., a ‘+’ showing a positive relationship between two factors, such as liming and pH, and a ‘-‘ indicating a negative relationship, such as between spraying and competition). Grazing systems are excluded due to the divergent nature of livestock systems versus cropping systems (see Fig. 2). See supporting information for links between management activity and impacts.