Table 1 Examples of MFS innovation pathways. The list is not exhaustive but is meant to illustrate possibilities for MFS innovation

Technical

Component effectiveness

Optimizing the irrigation system

Increased irrigation levels based on crop-specific requirements⁶⁰ (Section 3.1)

Optimizing plant density

Changing plant density to improve yields⁶¹

Adjusting fertilizer application

Improved fertilizer source, application placement and timing⁶²

System integration

Improving feed quality

Improved animal diets through new crop rotations³³ (Section 3.2)

Increasing feed availability

Utilizing perennial fodder crops as livestock feed⁶³

Improving manure application

Adjusting the source, timing and application methods of manure to the soil⁶⁴

System diversification

Adding trees in the system

Implementation of silvo-pastoral systems⁶⁵ (Section 3.3)

Adding multipurpose crops

Introduction of crops with multipurpose traits suited to mixed maize systems on limited landholdings for feed, soil fertility and food²²

Adding aquaculture

Introduction of aquaculture to terrestrial production systems⁶⁶

Socio-technical bundles

Flexible markets and finance services for legume diversification

Leveraging stakeholder collaborations to co-design service and innovation bundles to incentivize the integration of legumes for system diversification⁶⁷ (Section 3.4)

Gender inclusive advisory services for legume diversification

Re-orienting the legume diversification extension system from household head (often male) centric to more targeted, gender inclusive approach⁶⁸