Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

The rise of hydrogel transistors

Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering volume 3, pages 61–73 (2026)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Solid-state silicon transistors have profoundly transformed modern life by enabling a wide array of electronic technologies. The rise of bioelectronics has emphasized the necessity for interfacing transistors with living systems. However, challenges such as mechanical incompatibility, disparities in charge carrier types and differences in form factors present significant barriers to seamless integration. Recent advances in hydrogels have led to the development of hydrogel transistors, which merge the unique properties of hydrogels with transistor functionality, offering a solution to overcome these mismatches. This Perspective highlights hydrogel transistors, their biomimetic features and methods for their fabrication and characterization. We envision how hydrogel transistors, by evolving from conventional 2D thin-film electronics to 3D gel electronics, expand the device toolbox, enabling next-generation 3D, programmable and living bioelectronics.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Hydrogel transistors provide exclusive opportunities to fill gaps between transistors and living systems.
Fig. 2: Hydrogel tra nsistors and circuits for practical bioelectronic applications.
Fig. 3: Material strategies towards hydrogel transistors and tissue-like properties.
Fig. 4: Characterization of hydrogel transistors.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Brinkman, W. F., Haggan, D. E. & Troutman, W. W. A history of the invention of the transistor and where it will lead us. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 32, 1858–1865 (1997).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Cao, W. et al. The future transistors. Nature 620, 501–515 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Moore, G. E. Cramming more components onto integrated circuits. Proc. IEEE 86, 82–85 (1965).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Bardeen, J. & Brattain, W. H. The transistor, a semi-conductor triode. Phys. Rev. 74, 230 (1948).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Tybrandt, K., Larsson, K. C., Richter-Dahlfors, A. & Berggren, M. Ion bipolar junction transistors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 9929–9932 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Atalla, M. M., Tannenbaum, E. & Scheibner, E. Stabilization of silicon surfaces by thermally grown oxides. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 38, 749–783 (1959).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Kaltenbrunner, M. et al. An ultra-lightweight design for imperceptible plastic electronics. Nature 499, 458–463 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Muccini, M. A bright future for organic field-effect transistors. Nat. Mater. 5, 605–613 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Rivnay, J. et al. Organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3, 17086 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. White, H. S., Kittlesen, G. P. & Wrighton, M. S. Chemical derivatization of an array of three gold microelectrodes with polypyrrole: fabrication of a molecule-based transistor. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106, 5375–5377 (1984). This paper reports the first OECT.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Khodagholy, D. et al. In vivo recordings of brain activity using organic transistors. Nat. Commun. 4, 1575 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Kim, D.-H. et al. Stretchable and foldable silicon integrated circuits. Science 320, 507–511 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Zheng, Y.-Q. et al. Monolithic optical microlithography of high-density elastic circuits. Science 373, 88–94 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Huang, W. et al. Vertical organic electrochemical transistors for complementary circuits. Nature 613, 496–502 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Zhong, D. et al. High-speed and large-scale intrinsically stretchable integrated circuits. Nature 627, 313–320 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. van De Burgt, Y., Melianas, A., Keene, S. T., Malliaras, G. & Salleo, A. Organic electronics for neuromorphic computing. Nat. Electron. 1, 386–397 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Huang, Y. et al. Memristor-based hardware accelerators for artificial intelligence. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 1, 286–299 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Torricelli, F. et al. Electrolyte-gated transistors for enhanced performance bioelectronics. Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 1, 66 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Li, P. et al. n-Type semiconducting hydrogel. Science 384, 557–563 (2024). This paper reports an n-type hydrogel transistor for complementary inverters and logic circuits.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Someya, T., Bao, Z. & Malliaras, G. G. The rise of plastic bioelectronics. Nature 540, 379–385 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Shin, Y. et al. Low-impedance tissue-device interface using homogeneously conductive hydrogels chemically bonded to stretchable bioelectronics. Sci. Adv. 10, eadi7724 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Bai, J., Liu, D., Tian, X. & Zhang, S. Tissue-like organic electrochemical transistors. J. Mater. Chem. C. 10, 13303–13311 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Yin, J., Wang, S., Tat, T. & Chen, J. Motion artefact management for soft bioelectronics. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 2, 541–558 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Paulsen, B. D., Tybrandt, K., Stavrinidou, E. & Rivnay, J. Organic mixed ionic–electronic conductors. Nat. Mater. 19, 13–26 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Arwani, R. T. et al. Stretchable ionic–electronic bilayer hydrogel electronics enable in situ detection of solid-state epidermal biomarkers. Nat. Mater. 23, 1115–1122 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Rivnay, J., Owens, R. M. & Malliaras, G. G. The rise of organic bioelectronics. Chem. Mater. 26, 679–685 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Berggren, M. & Richter-Dahlfors, A. Organic bioelectronics. Adv. Mater. 19, 3201–3213 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Li, H., Liu, H., Sun, M., Huang, Y. & Xu, L. 3D Interfacing between soft electronic tools and complex biological tissues. Adv. Mater. 33, 2004425 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Pitsalidis, C. et al. Transistor in a tube: a route to three-dimensional bioelectronics. Sci. Adv. 4, eaat4253 (2018). This paper reports a 3D transistor based on a PEDOT:PSS scaffold.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Liu, D. et al. Increasing the dimensionality of transistors with hydrogels. Science 390, 824–830 (2025). This paper presents the first 3D, macroscopic hydrogel transistor featuring a channel with millimetre-scale thickness.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Saleh, A., Koklu, A., Uguz, I., Pappa, A.-M. & Inal, S. Bioelectronic interfaces of organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 2, 559–574 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Liu, D. et al. A wearable in-sensor computing platform based on stretchable organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Electron. 7, 1176–1185 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Zhang, Y. S. & Khademhosseini, A. Advances in engineering hydrogels. Science 356, eaaf3627 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Dargaville, B. L. & Hutmacher, D. W. Water as the often neglected medium at the interface between materials and biology. Nat. Commun. 13, 4222 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Shi, J. et al. Active biointegrated living electronics for managing inflammation. Science 384, 1023–1030 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Yuk, H., Lu, B. & Zhao, X. Hydrogel bioelectronics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 48, 1642–1667 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Sugiyama, H. et al. Microfabrication of cellulose nanofiber-reinforced hydrogel by multiphoton polymerization. Sci. Rep. 11, 10892 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Verhulsel, M. et al. A review of microfabrication and hydrogel engineering for micro-organs on chips. Biomaterials 35, 1816–1832 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Yang, C. & Suo, Z. Hydrogel ionotronics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 3, 125–142 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Dvir, T. et al. Nanowired three-dimensional cardiac patches. Nat. Nanotechnol. 6, 720–725 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Ahn, Y., Lee, H., Lee, D. & Lee, Y. Highly conductive and flexible silver nanowire-based microelectrodes on biocompatible hydrogel. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 6, 18401–18407 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Jing, X., Wang, X.-Y., Mi, H.-Y. & Turng, L.-S. Stretchable gelatin/silver nanowires composite hydrogels for detecting human motion. Mater. Lett. 237, 53–56 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Shin, S. R. et al. Carbon-nanotube-embedded hydrogel sheets for engineering cardiac constructs and bioactuators. ACS Nano 7, 2369–2380 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Deng, J. et al. Electrical bioadhesive interface for bioelectronics. Nat. Mater. 20, 229–236 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Li, J., Cao, J., Lu, B. & Gu, G. 3D-printed PEDOT:PSS for soft robotics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8, 604–622 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. He, H. et al. Hybrid assembly of polymeric nanofiber network for robust and electronically conductive hydrogels. Nat. Commun. 14, 759 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Li, L. et al. A robust polyaniline hydrogel electrode enables superior rate capability at ultrahigh mass loadings. Nat. Commun. 15, 6591 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Chong, J. et al. Highly conductive tissue-like hydrogel interface through template-directed assembly. Nat. Commun. 14, 2206 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Feig, V. R., Tran, H., Lee, M. & Bao, Z. Mechanically tunable conductive interpenetrating network hydrogels that mimic the elastic moduli of biological tissue. Nat. Commun. 9, 2740 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Lu, B. et al. Pure PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. Nat. Commun. 10, 1043 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Zhu, T. et al. Recent advances in conductive hydrogels: classifications, properties, and applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52, 473–509 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Zhang, S., Liu, D. & Wang, Y. From conducting hydrogel to semiconducting hydrogel. In 2023 Material Research Society Fall Meeting Abstract SB04.06.03 (2023). This work is the first to discuss the transition from a conducting hydrogel to a semiconducting hydrogel.

  53. Zhang, S. et al. Patterning of stretchable organic electrochemical transistors. Chem. Mater. 29, 3126–3132 (2017). This paper reports the first stretchable OECT.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Nilsson, D., Kugler, T., Svensson, P.-O. & Berggren, M. An all-organic sensor–transistor based on a novel electrochemical transducer concept printed electrochemical sensors on paper. Sens. Actuators, B 86, 193–197 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhang, S. et al. Room-temperature-formed PEDOT:PSS hydrogels enable injectable, soft, and healable organic bioelectronics. Adv. Mater. 32, 1904752 (2020). This paper reports the first observation of semiconducting behaviour in hydrogels.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Tseng, A. C. & Sakata, T. Direct electrochemical signaling in organic electrochemical transistors comprising high-conductivity double-network hydrogels. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14, 24729–24740 (2022). This paper reports a hydrogel transistor for glucose detection.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Dai, Y. et al. Soft hydrogel semiconductors with augmented biointeractive functions. Science 386, 431–439 (2024). This paper reports hydrogel transistors for augmented bioelectronic interfaces.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Kuzina, M. A., Kartsev, D. D., Stratonovich, A. V. & Levkin, P. A. Organogels versus hydrogels: advantages, challenges, and applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2301421 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Groenendaal, L., Jonas, F., Freitag, D., Pielartzik, H. & Reynolds, J. R. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and its derivatives: past, present, future. Adv. Mater. 12, 481–494 (2000).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Yang, C.-Y. et al. A high-conductivity n-type polymeric ink for printed electronics. Nat. Commun. 12, 2354 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Tang, H. et al. A solution-processed n-type conducting polymer with ultrahigh conductivity. Nature 611, 271–277 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Bießmann, L. et al. Monitoring the swelling behavior of PEDOT:PSS electrodes under high humidity conditions. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10, 9865–9872 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Lang, U., Naujoks, N. & Dual, J. Mechanical characterization of PEDOT:PSS thin films. Synth. Met. 159, 473–479 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Tahk, D., Lee, H. H. & Khang, D.-Y. Elastic moduli of organic electronic materials by the buckling method. Macromolecules 42, 7079–7083 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Sun, J.-Y. et al. Highly stretchable and tough hydrogels. Nature 489, 133–136 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Foudazi, R., Zowada, R., Manas-Zloczower, I. & Feke, D. L. Porous hydrogels: present challenges and future opportunities. Langmuir 39, 2092–2111 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Nilsson, D. et al. Bi-stable and dynamic current modulation in electrochemical organic transistors. Adv. Mater. 14, 51–54 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Dai, Y. et al. Stretchable redox active semiconducting polymers for high performance organic electrochemical transistors. Adv. Mater. 34, 2201178 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Su, X. et al. A highly conducting polymer for self-healable, printable, and stretchable organic electrochemical transistor arrays and near hysteresis-free soft tactile sensors. Adv. Mater. 34, 2200682 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Gregorio, T., Mombrú, D., Romero, M., Faccio, R. & Mombrú, ÁW. Exploring mixed ionic–electronic-conducting PVA/PEDOT:PSS hydrogels as channel materials for organic electrochemical transistors. Polymers 16, 1478 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Jo, Y. J. et al. Fibrillary gelation and dedoping of PEDOT:PSS fibers for interdigitated organic electrochemical transistors and circuits. NPJ Flex. Electron. 6, 31 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Li, N. et al. Bioadhesive polymer semiconductors and transistors for intimate biointerfaces. Science 381, 686–693 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Li, T. et al. Monolithically integrated solid-state vertical organic electrochemical transistors switching between neuromorphic and logic functions. Sci. Adv. 11, eadt5186 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Cavallo, A. et al. Biocompatible organic electrochemical transistor on polymeric scaffold for wound healing monitoring. Flex. Print. Electron. 7, 035009 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Lee, W. et al. Nonthrombogenic, stretchable, active multielectrode array for electroanatomical mapping. Sci. Adv. 4, eaau2426 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Bubnova, O. et al. Semi-metallic polymers. Nat. Mater. 13, 190–194 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. He, X. et al. Extreme hydrogel bioelectronics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2405896 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Gkoupidenis, P. et al. Organic mixed conductors for bioinspired electronics. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9, 134–149 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Rivnay, J. et al. Structural control of mixed ionic and electronic transport in conducting polymers. Nat. Commun. 7, 11287 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Keene, S. T., Rao, A. & Malliaras, G. G. The relationship between ionic-electronic coupling and transport in organic mixed conductors. Sci. Adv. 9, eadi3536 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Yan, Z. et al. Highly stretchable van der waals thin films for adaptable and breathable electronic membranes. Science 375, 852–859 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Chi, S.-H. & Chung, Y.-L. Mechanical behavior of functionally graded material plates under transverse load—part I: analysis. Int. J. Solids Struct. 43, 3657–3674 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Gong, J. P. Why are double network hydrogels so tough? Soft Matter 6, 2583–2590 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Li, X. & Gong, J. P. Design principles for strong and tough hydrogels. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9, 380–398 (2024).

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  85. Lampe, M. et al. A biocompatible supramolecular hydrogel mesh for sample stabilization in light microscopy and nanoscopy. Sci. Rep. 14, 29232 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Kang, J., Tok, J. B.-H. & Bao, Z. Self-healing soft electronics. Nat. Electron. 2, 144–150 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Liao, H. et al. Data-driven de novo design of super-adhesive hydrogels. Nature 644, 89–95 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Bovone, G., Dudaryeva, O. Y., Marco-Dufort, B. & Tibbitt, M. W. Engineering hydrogel adhesion for biomedical applications via chemical design of the junction. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 7, 4048–4076 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Yang, Q. et al. Photocurable bioresorbable adhesives as functional interfaces between flexible bioelectronic devices and soft biological tissues. Nat. Mater. 20, 1559–1570 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Spolenak, R., Gorb, S. & Arzt, E. Adhesion design maps for bio-inspired attachment systems. Acta Biomater. 1, 5–13 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Yang, J., Bai, R., Chen, B. & Suo, Z. Hydrogel adhesion: a supramolecular synergy of chemistry, topology, and mechanics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1901693 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Rao, P. et al. Tough hydrogels with fast, strong, and reversible underwater adhesion based on a multiscale design. Adv. Mater. 30, 1801884 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Gao, Y. et al. A hybrid transistor with transcriptionally controlled computation and plasticity. Nat. Commun. 15, 1598 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. George, R. et al. Plasticity and adaptation in neuromorphic biohybrid systems. iScience 23, 101589 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Mougkogiannis, P. & Adamatzky, A. Biohybrid computing with proteinoids and algae. Adv. Sci. 12, e06155 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Song, E. et al. Miniaturized electromechanical devices for the characterization of the biomechanics of deep tissue. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 5, 759–771 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Munjal, A., Philippe, J.-M., Munro, E. & Lecuit, T. A self-organized biomechanical network drives shape changes during tissue morphogenesis. Nature 524, 351–355 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Tarabella, G. et al. A hybrid living/organic electrochemical transistor based on the Physarum polycephalum cell endowed with both sensing and memristive properties. Chem. Sci. 6, 2859–2868 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Abonnenc, M. et al. Teaching cells to dance: the impact of transistor miniaturization on the manipulation of populations of living cells. Solid-State Electron. 49, 674–683 (2005).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Li, J. & Mooney, D. J. Designing hydrogels for controlled drug delivery. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1, 16071 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Yasue, H., Taguchi, T., Asoh, T.-A. & Nishiguchi, A. Cell-delivering injectable hydrogels with tunable microporous structures improve therapeutic efficacy for volumetric muscle loss. Adv. Funct. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202508278 (2025).

  102. Baek, J., Song, N., Yoo, B., Lee, D. & Kim, B.-S. Precisely programmable degradation and drug release profiles in triblock copolyether hydrogels with cleavable acetal pendants. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146, 13836–13845 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Li, H. et al. Programmable magnetic hydrogel robots with drug delivery and physiological sensing capabilities. Mater. Today 87, 66–76 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Dong, C. et al. Electrochemically actuated microelectrodes for minimally invasive peripheral nerve interfaces. Nat. Mater. 23, 969–976 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Bay, L., West, K., Sommer-Larsen, P., Skaarup, S. & Benslimane, M. A conducting polymer artificial muscle with 12% linear strain. Adv. Mater. 15, 310–313 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Smela, E., Inganäs, O. & Lundström, I. Controlled folding of micrometer-size structures. Science 268, 1735–1738 (1995).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Ionov, L. Hydrogel-based actuators: possibilities and limitations. Mater. Today 17, 494–503 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Friedlein, J. T., McLeod, R. R. & Rivnay, J. Device physics of organic electrochemical transistors. Org. Electron. 63, 398–414 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Bernards, D. A. & Malliaras, G. G. Steady-state and transient behavior of organic electrochemical transistors. Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 3538–3544 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Friedlein, J. T., Shaheen, S. E., Malliaras, G. G. & McLeod, R. R. Optical measurements revealing nonuniform hole mobility in organic electrochemical transistors. Adv. Electron. Mater. 1, 1500189 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Kaphle, V., Paudel, P. R., Dahal, D., Radha Krishnan, R. K. & Lüssem, B. Finding the equilibrium of organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Commun. 11, 2515 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Inal, S., Malliaras, G. G. & Rivnay, J. Benchmarking organic mixed conductors for transistors. Nat. Commun. 8, 1767 (2017). This article defines μC* as the material/system figure of merit of OECTs.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Khodagholy, D. et al. High transconductance organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Commun. 4, 2133 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Bongartz, L. M. et al. Bistable organic electrochemical transistors: enthalpy vs. entropy. Nat. Commun. 15, 6819 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Si, M. et al. A ferroelectric semiconductor field-effect transistor. Nat. Electron. 2, 580–586 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Van De Burgt, Y. et al. A non-volatile organic electrochemical device as a low-voltage artificial synapse for neuromorphic computing. Nat. Mater. 16, 414–418 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Rivnay, J. et al. High-performance transistors for bioelectronics through tuning of channel thickness. Sci. Adv. 1, e1400251 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Bianchi, M. et al. Scaling of capacitance of PEDOT:PSS: volume vs. area. J. Mater. Chem. C. 8, 11252–11262 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Wang, S. et al. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 1, 41 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Lazanas, A. C. & Prodromidis, M. I. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy—a tutorial. ACS Meas. Sci. Au 3, 162–193 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Cao, J.-H., Zhu, B.-K. & Xu, Y.-Y. Structure and ionic conductivity of porous polymer electrolytes based on PVDF–HFP copolymer membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 281, 446–453 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Barrande, M., Bouchet, R. & Denoyel, R. Tortuosity of porous particles. Anal. Chem. 79, 9115–9121 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Dechiraju, H., Jia, M., Luo, L. & Rolandi, M. Ion-conducting hydrogels and their applications in bioelectronics. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 6, 2100173 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Kim, Y., Kimpel, J., Giovannitti, A. & Müller, C. Small signal analysis for the characterization of organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Commun. 15, 7606 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Österholm, A. M., Ponder, J. F. Jr, De Keersmaecker, M., Shen, D. E. & Reynolds, J. R. Disentangling redox properties and capacitance in solution-processed conjugated polymers. Chem. Mater. 31, 2971–2982 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Wang, H. & Pilon, L. Accurate simulations of electric double layer capacitance of ultramicroelectrodes. J. Phys. Chem. C 115, 16711–16719 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Augustyn, V., Simon, P. & Dunn, B. Pseudocapacitive oxide materials for high-rate electrochemical energy storage. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 1597–1614 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Hisamoto, D., Kaga, T., Kawamoto, Y. & Takeda, E. A fully depleted lean-channel transistor (DELTA)—a novel vertical ultra thin SOI MOSFET. In International Technical Digest on Electron Devices Meeting 833–836 (IEEE, 1989).

  129. Khang, D.-Y., Jiang, H., Huang, Y. & Rogers, J. A. A stretchable form of single-crystal silicon for high-performance electronics on rubber substrates. Science 311, 208–212 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Zhang, S. et al. Solvent-induced changes in PEDOT:PSS films for organic electrochemical transistors. APL. Mater. 3, 014911 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Oh, J. Y. et al. Intrinsically stretchable and healable semiconducting polymer for organic transistors. Nature 539, 411–415 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Wang, S. et al. Skin electronics from scalable fabrication of an intrinsically stretchable transistor array. Nature 555, 83–88 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Lundstrom, M. Moore's law forever? Science 299, 210–211 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Waldrop, M. M. More than Moore. Nature 530, 144–148 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Kazazis, D., Santaclara, J. G., van Schoot, J., Mochi, I. & Ekinci, Y. Extreme ultraviolet lithography. Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 4, 84 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Bai, J., Li, X., Zhu, Z., Zheng, Y. & Hong, W. Single-molecule electrochemical transistors. Adv. Mater. 33, 2005883 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Shi, H. H. et al. Sustainable electronic textiles towards scalable commercialization. Nat. Mater. 22, 1294–1303 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. Cai, Z. et al. Textile hybrid electronics for multifunctional wearable integrated systems. Research 8, 0779 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Zhang, K. et al. Design and fabrication of wearable electronic textiles using twisted fiber-based threads. Nat. Protoc. 19, 1557–1589 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Truby, R. L. & Lewis, J. A. Printing soft matter in three dimensions. Nature 540, 371–378 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Zhu, Z., Ng, D. W. H., Park, H. S. & McAlpine, M. C. 3D-printed multifunctional materials enabled by artificial-intelligence-assisted fabrication technologies. Nat. Rev. Mater. 6, 27–47 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Yuk, H. et al. 3D printing of conducting polymers. Nat. Commun. 11, 1604 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Conti, S. et al. Printed transistors made of 2D material-based inks. Nat. Rev. Mater. 8, 651–667 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

S.Z. acknowledges the Collaborative Research Fund (C7005-23Y), the Early Career Scheme (ECS) (27214224), the General Research Fund (GRF) (17208623, 17200425) and the Theme-based Research Scheme (T45-701/22-R) from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR Government.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    Hao Huang, Xiaonan Chen, Jing Bai, Dingyao Liu & Shiming Zhang

  2. School of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    Hao Huang & Shiming Zhang

  3. Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and Systems, Faculty of Physics and Electrical Engineering, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany

    Björn Lüssem

  4. Electrical Engineering Division, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    George G. Malliaras

Authors
  1. Hao Huang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xiaonan Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jing Bai
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dingyao Liu
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Björn Lüssem
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. George G. Malliaras
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Shiming Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

S.Z. conceived this Perspective, acquired funding and supervised the work. S.Z., G.G.M., B.L., H.H., X.C., J.B. and D.L. contributed to the discussion of content. S.Z. and H.H. drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the Perspective and revision of the manuscript prior to submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shiming Zhang.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering thanks Bozhi Tian and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Huang, H., Chen, X., Bai, J. et al. The rise of hydrogel transistors. Nat Rev Electr Eng 3, 61–73 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44287-025-00231-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44287-025-00231-0

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing