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  • Review Article
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Mining, biodiversity and social conflict in the renewable energy transition

Nature Reviews Biodiversity volume 1, pages 597–614 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Global biodiversity is increasingly threatened by climate change and land-use pressures, including mining. Achieving net zero emissions by 2050 requires transitioning from fossil fuel extraction to sourcing the minerals necessary for renewable energy production. Although material use will probably decline in a low-carbon economy, the intensity, location and ecological footprint of extraction are expected to shift. In this Review, we assess how evolving mineral demands affect biodiversity and social conflicts. We examine the minerals required for renewable energy technologies and infrastructure, and outline the pathways through which mining affects biodiversity from site to global scales. Drawing on cases from the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice, we also explore how these impacts intersect with environmental justice conflicts, examining triggers, concerns and outcomes of conflicts related to energy transition minerals. Although ‘critical minerals’ dominate policy discourse, construction materials account for the largest share of demand by volume and are often neglected in research and policy analysis. Despite expanding research, crucial gaps remain in biodiversity and social risk assessments, comprehensive mineral demand projections and spatial data on the extraction of construction materials. Building a comprehensive understanding of mineral requirements and associated risks is essential for effective decarbonization strategies that are socially and environmentally responsible.

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Fig. 1: Net yearly additions in the demand for materials required for renewable energy production (wind, solar, hydropower) based on the International Energy Agency (IEA) scenarios from 2025 to 2030.
Fig. 2: Pathways linking mining to biodiversity changes.
Fig. 3: Direct and indirect impacts from mining lead to pollution and physical habitat alterations that influence biodiversity and the provision of essential services to people.
Fig. 4: Global active and exploration (or early pre-mining phases) areas for metals needed for renewable energy transition and coal according to S&P Global.
Fig. 5: Literature assessing the biodiversity impacts of mining for renewable energy-related minerals.
Fig. 6: Global distribution of environmental conflicts documented in the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice (EJAtlas).

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Acknowledgements

D.M.F. is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT240100383) funded by the Australian Government. S.O.S.E.z.E. was supported by the Horizon 2020 project SUPERB (Systemic solutions for upscaling of urgent ecosystem restoration for forest-related biodiversity and ecosystem services; Ref GA-101036849). S.M. acknowledges support (grant IJC2020-045451-I) funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by the European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR. A.T. was funded by the Generalitat Valenciana (CIDEIG/2022/44).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Global Centre for Mineral Security, The University of Queensland, Sustainable Minerals Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Bora Aska, Laura J. Sonter & Daniel M. Franks

  2. Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Bora Aska & Thomas J. Lloyd

  3. The Biodiversity Consultancy Pty Ltd, Cambridge, UK

    Laura J. Sonter

  4. School of the Environment, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Laura J. Sonter

  5. Nature-positive Hub, Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Sophus O. S. E. zu Ermgassen

  6. Leverhulme Centre for Nature Recovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

    Sophus O. S. E. zu Ermgassen

  7. Geography Department, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain

    Sara Mingorria

  8. Altekio S Coop.Mad, Madrid, Spain

    Irene Iniesta-Arandia

  9. FRACTALS Collective, Madrid, Spain

    Irene Iniesta-Arandia

  10. Departamento de Ecología, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain

    Aurora Torres

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Contributions

B.A., A.T., L.J.S., D.M.F., S.O.S.E.z.E, S.M., and I.I.-A. made substantial contributions to the conceptual development and overall discussion of the Review’s content. B.A. and A.T. researched the data for the Review, including the literature review and environmental conflict datasets, with support from L.J.S., S.M. and I.I.-A. B.A. and A.T. also developed and created the visualizations. B.A., A.T., S.O.S.E.z.E, D.M.F. and T.J.L. were responsible for writing the manuscript. All authors contributed to reviewing and editing the manuscript prior to submission.

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Nature Reviews Biodiversity thanks Arpita Bisht; Xiangbo Yin, who co-reviewed with Lee Ping Ang; and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Related links

Amazon Mining Watch: https://amazonminingwatch.org

Global Witness: https://globalwitness.org/en/

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: https://www.cbd.int/gbf

Marine Sand Watch: https://unepgrid.ch/en/marinesandwatch

Paris Agreement: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement

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Aska, B., Sonter, L.J., zu Ermgassen, S.O.S.E. et al. Mining, biodiversity and social conflict in the renewable energy transition. Nat. Rev. Biodivers. 1, 597–614 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44358-025-00076-3

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