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  • Review Article
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Battery technologies for grid-scale energy storage

Nature Reviews Clean Technology volume 1, pages 474–492 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Increased generation of renewable electricity from intermittent sources is needed to support decarbonization of energy systems, but balancing the electricity grid is challenging. Energy storage — such as through battery energy-storage technologies (BESTs) — is therefore needed to store excess energy when generation is greater than demand for times when demand outpaces generation. In this Review, we describe BESTs being developed for grid-scale energy storage, including high-energy, aqueous, redox flow, high-temperature and gas batteries. Battery technologies support various power system services, including providing grid support services and preventing curtailment. Compared to widely used energy-storage technologies such as pumped hydropower storage, BESTs have advantages such as flexibility in terms of location and relatively quick deployment, which could facilitate their use in distributed energy storage. The technical requirements of BEST systems (such as response time, lifetime, round-trip efficiency, capacity and self-discharge) vary between energy-storage applications; cost and safety are important considerations across potential use cases. BESTs are increasingly deployed, so critical challenges with respect to safety, cost, lifetime, end-of-life management and temperature adaptability need to be addressed.

Key points

  • The rise in renewable energy utilization is increasing demand for battery energy-storage technologies (BESTs).

  • BESTs based on lithium-ion batteries are being developed and deployed. However, this technology alone does not meet all the requirements for grid-scale energy storage.

  • Safety, resource availability and the disposal of spent lithium-ion batteries are potential concerns associated with this technology.

  • Their high safety, extended cycle life and favourable recyclability make redox flow batteries and hydrogen batteries suitable as a complement to or substitute for lithium-ion batteries in specific scenarios.

  • Further development of advanced BESTs involves optimizing battery materials and chemistry, refining battery-management systems and improving production processes.

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Fig. 1: The development and applications of GSES technologies.
Fig. 2: Battery energy-storage system applications.
Fig. 3: Energy-storage scenarios and their performance requirements.
Fig. 4: Working mechanisms and performance of BESTs.
Fig. 5: Safety and cost challenges and effective strategies for BESTs.
Fig. 6: Lifetime and recycling of various BESTs.

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Acknowledgements

W.C. acknowledges support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 92372122 and 52471242) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grants KY2060000269, GG2060127001, KY2060000150 and WK2060000040). T.J. acknowledges support from the Postdoctoral Fellowship Program of CPSF (grant GZB20230704), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant 2023M743367) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant WK2060000061). This work was also supported by the Joint Laboratory for USTC and Yanchang Petroleum (grant 2022ZK-03), and the Shandong Province Natural Science Foundation (grant ZR2024ZD01).

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Taoli Jiang, Dongyang Shen, Zuodong Zhang.

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  1. Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China

    Taoli Jiang, Dongyang Shen, Zuodong Zhang, Hongxu Liu, Guili Zhao, Yidi Wang, Shunxin Tan, Ruihao Luo & Wei Chen

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Contributions

T.J., D.S. and Z.Z. wrote the draft. W.C. supervised, reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors discussed the review and agreed upon the final version of the manuscript. T.J., D.S. and Z.Z. contributed equally to the preparation of this manuscript.

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Supplementary information

Glossary

Battery-management systems

Systems that monitor and manage rechargeable batteries, ensuring optimal performance by continuously tracking battery status and balancing individual cells.

Black start

Restoration of power-plant operations after network outage without external power supply.

Compressed-air energy storage

An energy-storage method in which excess electricity powers a compressor to store energy as pressurized air; the stored air is later expanded through a turbine to generate electricity.

Cycle life

The cycle number when the battery system reaches 80% of its initial capacity.

Discharge time

The amount of time that a battery or energy-storage device can deliver a specified current before its voltage falls below a predetermined level.

Electrochemical capacitors

Devices that store energy in an electric field created by a double layer of charge at the interface between an electrolyte and a conductive electrode.

Energy-management systems

Systems that monitor battery storage systems, optimizing connectivity between the systems and various grid units to enhance energy efficiency and reduce operating costs.

Flywheel

A rotating wheel that stores energy by converting supernumerary electric energy to kinetic energy; flywheels have been applied in frequency regulation for energy storage.

Long-duration energy storage

Energy-storage systems designed to store and release energy over extended periods, typically more than ten hours, to balance supply and demand in power systems.

Peak shaving

Reduction of energy demand during peak times; battery energy-storage systems can be used to provide energy during peak demand periods.

Power density

The ratio of power input or output under specific conditions to the mass or volume of a device, categorized as gravimetric power density (watts per kilogram) and volumetric power density (watts per litre).

Power-conversion systems

Large-scale systems of multiple converters and inverters for bidirectional power conversion within electrical grids to enable energy transfer from DC sources such as batteries to AC grids.

Protic solvent

A solvent that contains protons.

Pumped storage hydropower

(PSH). An energy storage approach that generates power by releasing water through turbines from an upper to the lower reservoir and uses power to pump water back into the upper reservoir.

Regeneration

Reactivation of the active electrode materials in spent batteries to recover their electrochemical performance.

Response time

The time it takes for a battery system to react to a load demand or control signal.

Round-trip efficiency

(RTE). The ratio of energy output to input in a storage system, expressed as a percentage, accounting for cell losses and auxiliary equipment; a higher value indicates lower energy losses.

Self-consumption

The use of energy stored in a grid-connected battery system to meet on-site energy demands, reducing the reliance on the external grid.

Self-discharge

The gradual loss of stored energy in a battery over time due to internal chemical reactions, even when it is not connected to a load or in use.

State of charge

A rechargeable battery’s current energy level as a percentage of its total capacity, with 0% indicating fully discharged and 100% representing fully charged.

Thermal energy-storage systems

Systems that store energy in the form of heat or cold within a designated storage medium, which can include substances such as water or molten salt.

Uninterruptible power supply systems

Devices that provide backup power and ensure continuous electricity supply to connected equipment during power outages or fluctuations.

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Jiang, T., Shen, D., Zhang, Z. et al. Battery technologies for grid-scale energy storage. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. 1, 474–492 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-025-00067-9

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