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The US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) convened a virtual workshop in July 2022 to address the research landscape and identify gaps and opportunities in the understanding of durable vaccine protection.

Sequencing of B cell receptors and expression of the corresponding monoclonal antibodies is used to characterize the evolution of the long-term B cell response to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination.

COVID-19 booster immunizations aimed at spike protein from new SARS-CoV-2 variants induce robust germinal centre B cell responses against the original spike protein, as well as de novo B cell responses against the variant spike protein.

SARS-CoV-2 infection induces long-lived bone marrow plasma cells that correlate with anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike protein antibody titres in individuals who have recovered from COVID-19.

In this Review, Brian Laidlaw and Ali Ellebedy outline our current understanding of the germinal centre response in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and its importance for establishing protective immunity against the virus. They also consider the germinal centre responses seen following vaccination and how germinal centre responses may be modulated to induce broad protection against new variants of SARS-CoV-2.

Schattgen et al. profiled the subsets and clonality of CD4⁺ T_FH cells in the blood and lymph nodes of human volunteers who received two influenza vaccines 1 year apart to characterize their dynamics and clonal evolution over 2 years.

Antibodies that broadly inhibit influenza virus neuraminidase by binding to its active site could be therapeutic candidates, but circulating viruses have acquired a glycosylation site in that region. Here, the authors show that, while the S245N glycosylation site affects binding of tested monoclonal antibodies, protective activity in a mouse model is maintained.

A comprehensive analysis of antibody neutralization activity against a panel of authentic isolates and chimeric SARS-CoV-2 variants shows markedly diminished neutralizing activity against the variant B.1.351, first identified in South Africa.

Mudd, Ellebedy and colleagues integrate single-cell transcriptomics and TCR sequencing to characterize the spike-specific CD4⁺ T_FH cell response in the lymph nodes and blood of BNT162b2-vaccinated and SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals up to 6 months after vaccination or infection.

The human germinal centre response to influenza virus vaccination is fuelled by the continued recruitment of naive B cells as well as pre-existing memory B cells.

Acinetobacter baumannii is a multi-drug-resistant pathogen of urgent international concern. Here, the authors develop a protein subunit vaccine which prevents A. baumannii catheter-associated urinary tract infections in mice by inhibiting Abp2D, a key adhesive virulence factor.

Analysis of antigen-specific B cells in lymph nodes of individuals vaccinated with BNT162b2 reveals lasting germinal centre responses, explaining the robust humoral immunity induced by SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-based vaccines.

Experiments in mouse and hamster models show that monoclonal antibody combinations, using antibodies that correspond to products in clinical development, largely retain their efficacy in protecting against currently prevailing variant strains of SARS-CoV-2.

The recently identified Wuhan spiny eel influenza virus (WSEIV) sequence is more closely related to influenza B than A viruses. Here, the authors functionally characterize the putative surface glycoproteins of WSEIV and show that its NA-like protein has sialidase activity and its HA-like protein binds monosialic ganglioside 2.

Elucidation of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAb) is a goal in HIV vaccine development. Here, Bradley et al. show that administration of CTLA-4 blocking antibody with vaccine antigens increases HIV-1 envelope antibody responses in macaques and a bnAb precursor mouse model.

Immunologic memory promotes faster and more-efficient responses after re-exposure to pathogens. Ahmed and colleagues characterize a subset of human B cells that arise after vaccination against or exposure to influenza or Ebola virus and contribute to the memory cell pool.

The SARS-CoV-2 Assessment of Viral Evolution (SAVE) programme provides a real-time risk assessment of SARS-CoV-2 variants with the potential to affect transmission, virulence and resistance to infection- and vaccine-induced immunity.