Abstract
Particular attention has been paid to the nutritional potential of edible insects as well as the health benefits associated with their bioactive compounds. This paper focused on an in-depth review compiling the most recent information on health benefits of insect bioactive metabolites as well as their purification and identification, in addition to consumer attitudes towards edible insects. It was found that, insect bioactive metabolites, including marcocarpal, grandinol, trolline, pancratistatin, narciclasin, ungeremin, cantharidin, cordycepin, roseoflavin, lecithin, reblastatin, chitin, chitosan and desmosterol deemed to have biological activities, such as tumor suppression, anticancer, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulator, neuroprotective, glycemic and lipid regulation, blood pressure reduction, regulation of intestinal bacterial flora and cardiovascular protection among others. Furthermore, proper sample preparation and extraction is the first step in the purification of bioactive metabolites from edible insects. After concentration, bioactive metabolites are purified using chromatographic and separation techniques including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography (GC), Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC), Size-Exclusion Chromatography (SEC). Finally, their nutritional potential, health benefits, environmentally friendly, great taste, traditions, taboo, safety concerns, unpleasant past experiences, allergies, and unnaturalness are among the main factors influencing attitudes towards insect consumption.
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Introduction
With a rapidly growing world population1 and the goal of promoting healthier as well as sustainable food systems2, there is a growing demand for alternative proteins3. This situation is exacerbated by the scarcity of essential arable land4, environmental pressures linked to the uncertainties of climate change5,6. Edible insects are thus seen as a formidable alternative to address the issues of global food insecurity7 for their nutritional potential8,9, taste10, economic benefits11,12, environmental benefits13, as well as their potential health benefits14.
In many parts of the world, entomotherapy is used as medicine and is an important alternative to modern therapy through their bioactive metabolites including pancratistatin, narciclasin, ungeremin, cantharidin, cordycepin, roseoflavin, lecithin, reblastatin, chitin, and chitosan15,16. These bioactive compounds present important physiological effects on living organisms through their physiological properties encompassing anti-obesity, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic, antimicrobial, opioid, cytomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, immunomodulatory, antiangiogenic, and immunomodulatory activities14,17.
Given their diverse functions, high bioavailability and efficacy even at low concentrations, bioactive compounds attract a great deal of attention, although some bioactive compounds are naturally present in isolation, many are hidden within the intact structure18. Even though effort is being made, consumer attitudes and willingness to consume insects remain a major challenge in many societies19, due to traditions, superstitions and taboos as well as familiarity with insect20, their appearance and great taste8,21.
Considering the attention paid to insects as food and feed, this review compiled the most recent information focusing on health benefits of insect bioactive metabolites as well as their purification and identification, and finally a particular attention was paid to sensory attributes and consumer attitudes towards edible insects.
Potential health benefits of insect bioactive metabolites
Insects are characterized by several bioactive metabolites, including marcocarpal, grandinol, trolline, pancratistatin, narciclasine, ungeremine, cantharidin, cordycepin, roseoflavin, lecithin, reblastatin, chitin, chitosan and desmosterol (Fig. 1), which confer a variety of beneficial biological activities to human health, including tumor suppression, anti-cancer, anti-hypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, blood sugar and lipid regulation, blood pressure reduction, regulation of intestinal bacterial flora and cardiovascular protection (Table 1). While Fig. 2 illustrates the biological activities of bioactive insect metabolites and their mechanisms of activity, detailed information associating insect species to their bioactive metabolites is depicted in Table 1.
Health benefits of insect bioactive metabolites and their potential mechanisms.
Chemical structures of selected bioactive metabolites found in edible insects.
Anti-cancer and tumor suppressive effects have been observed for bioactive metabolites such as actinomycin-D, isocoumarins periplatins A-D, (R)-(+)-palasonin, palasonimide, cantharimide, palasonin, cantharidin, norcantharidin, pederin, pancratistatin, narciclasin and ungeremin found in insect species including Macrotermes natalensis22, Periplaneta americana23, Hycleus oculatus24, Hycleus lunata25, Paederus sp26 and Brachystola magna17 by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting cancer cell growth, in addition to inhibiting tumor metastasis and affecting cancer cell energy metabolism.
Hypertension is one of the main risk factors for cardiovascular disease, affecting millions of people every year. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) plays a key role in the regulation of blood pressure, and its efficacy in the treatment of hypertension has been proven27. Protein hydrolysates from insect species belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera have demonstrated ACE inhibitory activity. In other research, specific ACE inhibitory peptides from Bombyx mori, Tenebrio molitor, Spodoptera littoralis and Oecophylla smaragdina have been identified27,28. It has been reported that protein synthesis can release certain amino acids with important physiological regulatory functions including inhibiting severe hypertension and lowering blood pressure as a result of combination of lysine and methionine, and histidine29.
Pessina and collaborators30 reported anti-hypertensive effects of defatted Tenebrio molitor exhibiting strong ACE inhibitory activity with a dose-devendent reduction of svstolic blood pressure in hypertensive rats. Additionally, biactive metabolites such as macrotermycin A-D, natalenamides A-C, blapsols A-D, molossusamides A-C, photoinduced, melanins and ommochromes, aspongopusamides A-D, polyrhadopamines A-E, troline found in Macrotermes natalensis31,32, Blaps japanensis17,33, Hermetia illucens34, Polyrhachis dives35 were highlighted to have anti-inflammatory properties through effective inhibition of LOX and COX-2 activity, regulation of expression of inflammation- and immunity-related factors to improve the inflammation pathology. By boosting probiotic production and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and plasma lipids, immune response and function in humans, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract, would be linked to insect chitin content.
Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer found in the exoskeletons of arthropods including insects36. It has some potential antinutritional properties, particularly when consumed in large quantities. The antinutritional aspects of chitin includes digestibility issues, inhibition of nutrient absorption and interference with protein digestion. Moreover, Chitin is largely indigestible to humans due to a lack of the enzymes needed to break it down, as its structure is resistant to digestive enzymes such as amylase, protease and lipase37. Additionally, chitin can bind to certain nutrients, potentially reducing their bioavailability. Furthermore, due to its rigid, fibrous nature, large quantities of chitin can lead to reduced protein absorption or incomplete digestion by interfering with the digestion of proteins and other macromolecules in the stomach38.
Glycosaminoglycan, a polysaccharide found in Gryllus bimaculatus, showed a significant anti-inflammatory effect against chronic arthritis in mice by inhibiting C-reactive protein (CRP) through suppression of a number of inflammatory biomarkers in vitro39. Furthermore, in combination with indomethacin, glycosaminoglycan was more effective than either agent alone in suppressing paw edema39. Furthermore, in rats fed a high-fat diet, glycosaminoglycan reduced CRP levels, abdominal and epididymal fat mass and various serobiochemical parameters (phospholipids, aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), total cholesterol and glucose)40. Another study in diabetic mice revealed that glycosaminoglycan supplementation reduced blood glucose and LDL cholesterol levels, and increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes, notably catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase41.These findings indicate that the glycosaminoglycan present in Gryllus bimaculatus may help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
The A-D blapsols contained in Blaps japanensis demonstrated antioxidant properties42. Similarly, higher antioxidant activity was found in peptide43, photoinduced, melanins and ommochromes44 by analyzing DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities. Moreover, carminic acid found in Dactylopius coccus also exhibited antioxidant activity17. Insect hydrolysates and peptide fractions have demonstrated antioxidant properties, by contributing to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress by lowering the level of free radicals present in the body45,46. Di Mattia and collaborators37 reported that water-soluble extracts found in grasshoppers, silkworms and crickets have an antioxidant capacity around five times greater than that of fresh orange juice in vitro, due to their higher protein/peptide content.
Cantharidin17 and defensins-DLP2 and DLP447 found in Hycleus lunata exhibited immunomodulatory effects by promoting the expression of immune-related factors, enhancing natural killer cell activity as well as stimulating and activating the innate immune system. Furthermore, protein-enriched fraction from Musca domestica also showed immunomodulatory effects48. Moreover, immunomodulatory hexapeptide from alcalase hydrolysate of ultramicro-pretreated present in Bombyx mori pupae protein has potential therapeutic value as an immunomodulatory bioactive metabolite49. Purified polypeptide components (BPP-21 and BPP-22) found in Apis mellifera pupae revealed immunomodulatory activity in vivo and in vitro by increasing the phosphorylation of ERK and p38, and modulating the expression of intranuclear transcription factors (EIK-1, MEF-2 and CREB) in the MAPK signaling pathway50.
Pessina and collaborators30 observed neuroprotective effects in defatted Tenebrio molitor larvae. Additionally, bioactive compounds such as Coprismycin A-B and Collismycin A contained in Paederus sp have shown neuroprotective effects26. Moreover, polybioside51 and tetraponerins52 present respectively in Polybia paulista and Tetraponera rufonigra revealed neuroprotective effects.
Anti-microbial effects have been observed in several insect bioactive metabolites, such as Shellolic acid A found in Kerria lacca53, macrocarpal and grandinol found in Amauronematus amplus, Arge sp, Dineura pullior, Nematus brevivalvis, Nematus pravus, Nematus viridescens, Nematus viridis, Perga affinis, Pristiphora alpestris, Trichiosoma scalesii54, Desmosterol, (3β, 5α) cholesta-8, 14, 24-trien-3-ol, 4, 4-dimethyl, (3β, 20 R) cholesta-5, 24-dien-3, 20-diol found in Schistocerca gregaria55.
The antimicrobial effect of Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio has been proven in reducing E. coli and Salmonella infections in broilers56 due to their chitin content, which is a polymer of b-1, 4N-acetylglucosamine and is the primary component of the insect exoskeleton57,58. The latter and its degraded products, such as chitosan, exert antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and immunomodulatory activity59. Moreover, Nino et al.60 and Torres-Castillo et al.61 reported potential bioactivity of insect phenolics including tricin, luteolin, apigenin, orientin, iso-orientin, vitexin, iso-vitexin, kaempferol, quercetin, isorhamnetin, myricetin, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, linked to chronic diseases such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer, among others. Chitooligosaccharides, depolymerized products of chitin and chitosan, taken orally for eight weeks significantly reduced the level of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and interleukin (IL)-1β in elderly people62.
Antibacterial activity was observed for actinomycin-D, macrotermycin A-D and pseudoxyallemycin-B present in Macrotermes natalensis22,31,63, 1-(2,5-Dihydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxybutan-1-one, Roseoflavin and 8-methylamino-8-demethyl-d-riboflavin found in Odontotermes formosanus64,65, roseoflavin, 8-methylamino-8-demethyl-D-riboflavin, natalamycin and termisoflavones A-C present in Macrotermes spp65,66, molossusamides A-C found in Catharsius molossus67, lenzimycins A-B found in Onthophagus lenzii68, α-pyrone, diketopiperazine, pyrone derivatives, diketopiperazine, photoinduced, melanins and ommochromes found in Hermetia illucens69,70, and papilistatin found in Byasa polyeuctes71.
Bioactive metabolites found in insects such as 5-Hydroxyramulosin and biatriosporin-M found in Odontotermes formosanus64, natalamycin-A, geldanamycin, reblastatin, banegasin, cyclo-NMe-L-3,5-dichlorotyrosine-Dhb and rubrominin A-B found in Macrotermes natalensis22, efomycin K, efomycin L, efomycin M, efomycin G, elaiophylin, roseoflavin, 8-methylamino-8-demethyl, D-riboflavin, natalamycin, termisoflavones A-C present in Macrotermes spp65,72, tricin, palmitinic acid and eicosane found in Holotrichia diomphalia73 have shown antifungal effects.
Insect-based feeding is associated with the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), in terms of increasing the abundance and diversity of beneficial bacteria in the gut. One study showed that chitin is broken down into propionate and butyrate SCFAs by the gut microbiota58, followed by a reduction in blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels in chickens fed insect meal, with an increase in energy58. An increase in white blood cells, haemoglobin and red blood cells, followed by improved immune function was observed in fish supplemented with chitin and chitosan74. A reduction in triglyceride and cholesterol levels and an increase in blood calcium levels were observed in chickens supplemented with H. illucens larvae. This is explained by the fact that chitin’s positive charge enables it to bind negatively charged free fatty acids and bile acids75.
There are a variety of hypoglycemic bioactive metabolites in insects and their products, including proteins, peptides, polysaccharides, unsaturated fatty acids, alkaloids, and flavonoids76. Silkworm hydrolysate and fibroin are said to be ideal blood sugar regulators53. In addition, silkworm larvae, honey and chrysalises contain a large number of polysaccharides with hypoglycemic effects77. Removing the acetyl group, chitin is transformed into soluble chitosan. The oligosaccharides obtained by enzymolysis or acid hydrolysis of chitosan also have hypoglycemic effects in humans78. Insect fat is rich in unsaturated fatty acids79, including linoleic acid, which can improve glucose tolerance, with effects on insulin and reduces the incidence of cardiovascular and retinal complications in diabetic patients80.
Studies on trace elements show that magnesium, zinc, calcium, iron, copper, chromium, nickel, selenium among others are linked to human blood sugar metabolism with hypoglycemic effects81. Additionally, edible insects contain high levels of linolenic acid, which can prevent the synthesis of fatty acids and glycyrrhizin and accelerate the β-oxidation of fatty acids. Linolenic acid functions to reduce triacylglycerides, prolong clotting time and combat thrombosis, and is widely present in lepidopterous larvae, such as Clanis bilineata tsingtauica Mell, Tenebrio molitor, Zophobas atratus82. Moreover, chitin and chitosan present in Tenebrio molitor larvae can reduce blood pressure, blood lipids, and promote cholesterol metabolism78,83.
Moreover, Teixeira et al. 84 reported 177 peptides with predicted bioactivities and 61 peptides with bioactivity assessed In vitro and 3 peptides with bioactivity assessed In vivo from Gryllodes sigillatu, Gryllus assimilis, Schistocerca gregaria, Alphitobius diaperinus, Tenebrio molitor,Polyphylla adspersa, Apis mellifera, Oecophylla smaragdina, Bombyx mori, Spodoptera littoralis, Hermetia illucens, and Musca domestica.
Purification and identification of bioactive metabolites found in edible insects
The purification of bioactive metabolites from edible insects
Several key techniques and methodologies are being used to isolate, identify and purify bioactive metabolites present in the tissues of edible insects. These bioactive metabolites are of growing interest due to their potential health benefits, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. The general process for purifying bioactive metabolites from edible insects is described below.
Sample preparation and extraction
Proper sample preparation and extraction is the first step in the purification of bioactive metabolites from edible insects. The insect species selected can vary according to the bioactive compounds sought85. Depending on the solubility of the target metabolites, bioactive compounds can be extracted using a variety of solvents, including methanol and ethanol for extracting polar compounds like polyphenols and peptides86, hexane for lipid-soluble compounds such as fatty acids and sterols87, water for hydrophilic bioactive compounds, especially antioxidants88, and acetone is also used for both lipid and protein extractions89. Once extraction is complete, the resulting solution is usually concentrated using techniques such as rotary evaporation to remove the solvent. In addition, filtration is performed to remove insoluble solids, leaving a clear extract ready for further purification.
Purification Techniques
Once extraction is complete, techniques such as rotary evaporation are used to remove the solvent and concentrate the solution. In addition, insoluble solids are removed by filtration, leaving a clear extract ready for further purification. After concentration, bioactive metabolites are purified using chromatographic and separation techniques including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), one of the most common methods for separating and purifying bioactive metabolites from insect extracts90, Gas Chromatography (GC) which is particularly particularly useful for purifying volatile compounds, such as fatty acids and terpenoids91, Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC), this one can be used as a preliminary purification step for lipophilic compounds such as sterols and antioxidants, even though not as advanced as HPLC; Size-Exclusion Chromatography (SEC): SEC is beneficial technique for separating compounds based on their molecular size. Very useful when purifying large molecules like proteins or polysaccharides from insect exoskeletons92, and Ion-Exchange Chromatography which is a method particularly used for isolating charged compounds, such as bioactive peptides93.
Characterization of purified bioactive metabolites in edible insects
After purification, isolated metabolites are characterized to confirm their identity as well as their bioactivity using several techniques including mass spectrometry (MS): a powerful tool for identifying the molecular weight and structure of bioactive metabolites94, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR): often used for detailed structural characterization of purified metabolites, particularly to identify complex molecules such as fatty acids and peptides; and UV-Vis spectrophotometry, which is frequently used to identify and quantify light-absorbing bioactive compounds, including polyphenols and flavonoids95.
Identification of bioactive metabolites in edible insects
The identification of bioactive metabolites in edible insects has garnered much attention due their potential health benefits, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and even anticancer properties, due to their wealth of bioactive compounds, including peptides, lipids, polyphenols, vitamins, minerals and chitin derivatives96. Insects are rich in proteins which can be hydrolyzed to release bioactive peptides with potential health-promoting properties including antimicrobial, antihypertensive by inhibiting angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and antioxidant effects97.
Moreover, edible insects are caracerized by a variety of lipids, including essential fatty acids important for human health. Insects such as crickets, mealworms and grasshoppers contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), notably omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids98. Furthermore, many edible insects are rich in polyphenolic compounds, particularly phenolic acids and flavonoids, known for their antioxidant in cells and tissues, free radical scavenging activity and potentially anti-cancer properties61.
Additionally, edible insects contain essential vitamins and minerals that support various bodily functions including metabolism, immune function, wound healing, bone health, red blood cell production, and maintaining a healthy nervous system8. Other bioactive metabolites such as sterols and triterpenoids are found in the lipids of insects and are known to contribute cardiovascular health by lowering cholesterol, reduce inflammation, and exhibit anticancer properties99. In addition to chitin, other polysaccharides such as glucans found in the hemolymph of insects have been studied for their potential bioactivity including anticancer and immunomodulatory properties by stimulating the immune system and improving resistance to infections98.
Consumer attitudes toward edible insects
Consumer attitudes toward edible insects have been a subject of interest and debate in recent years19. As the world grapples with the challenges of sustainable food production and environmental concerns, edible insects have emerged as a potential solution to address these issues14. However, the acceptance and adoption of edible insects as a mainstream food source largely depends on consumer attitudes and perceptions21.
One of the primary factors influencing consumer attitudes toward edible insects is cultural and societal norms100. In many Western countries, insects are not traditionally part of the culinary landscape and are often associated with disgust or considered as pests101. This deeply ingrained cultural bias leads to a significant barrier to acceptance. However, in other cultures, such as parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, insects have long been consumed and are even considered delicacies102. Cultural exposure and familiarity with edible insects play a crucial role in shaping consumer attitudes and acceptance103.
Many people are concerned about the safety of consuming insects, particularly regarding potential allergenic reactions or contamination104. However, numerous studies have shown that edible insects are safe for human consumption when sourced from reliable and regulated suppliers105. In fact, insects are often rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals, making them a nutritious and sustainable food option9. Education and awareness campaigns highlighting the nutritional benefits and safety standards associated with edible insects can help reshape consumer attitudes.
Traditional livestock production, such as cattle farming, is resource-intensive and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. In contrast, insects require minimal resources, emit fewer greenhouse gases, and can be reared on organic waste, making them an environmentally friendly alternative106. Consumers who are conscious of these environmental issues may be more open to incorporating insects into their diet as a sustainable choice5,107,108.
The way edible insects are marketed and presented to consumers can significantly impact their perception and willingness to try them109. Manufacturers and retailers should focus on creating appealing and visually appealing products that align with consumers’ taste preferences and dietary habits110. Clever marketing strategies that emphasize the novelty, sustainability, and health benefits of edible insects can help overcome initial resistance and spark curiosity among consumers111.
Furthermore, taste preferences are often developed through exposure and personal experiences. Offering opportunities for consumers to sample and taste insect-based products in a non-threatening and controlled environment can help overcome the initial resistance and foster positive experiences110. Social influences, such as peer recommendations and endorsements from influential figures, can also sway consumer attitudes and drive acceptance. Overcoming cultural biases, addressing safety concerns, and raising awareness about the nutritional and environmental benefits of edible insects are crucial steps in reshaping consumer attitudes. By actively engaging consumers, providing appealing product options, and dispelling misconceptions, edible insects have the potential to become a viable and sustainable food source in the future.
It can be concluded that some of the main positive factors influencing attitudes towards insects include nutritional potential, health benefits, environmentally friendly, great taste, and traditions; on the other hand, the main factors underlining negative attitudes towards insects are, among others, taboo, safety concerns, unpleasant past experiences, allergies and unnaturalness as summarized in Fig. 3.
Attitudes towards edible insects as food.
Conclusion and future perspectives
It can be generally concluded that insect bioactive metabolites, including marcocarpal, grandinol, trolline, pancratistatin, narciclasin, ungeremin, cantharidin, cordycepin, roseoflavin, lecithin, reblastatin, chitin, chitosan and desmosterol play a crucial role in conferring several beneficial biological activities, such as tumor suppression, anticancer, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulator, neuroprotective, glycemic and lipid regulation, blood pressure reduction, regulation of intestinal bacterial flora and cardiovascular protection among others. However, proper sample preparation and extraction is the first step in the purification of bioactive metabolites from edible insects. After concentration, bioactive metabolites are purified using chromatographic and separation techniques including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography (GC), Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC), Size-Exclusion Chromatography (SEC). It is noteworthy that nutritional potential, health benefits, environmentally friendly, great taste, traditions, taboo, safety concerns, unpleasant past experiences, allergies, and unnaturalness are among the main factors influencing attitudes towards insects.
Given the immense insect biodiversity, more in-depth investigations should focus on undiscovered bioactive metabolites, for more information on their potential as a sustainable therapeutic source. Particular attention should be paid to increasingly describing the therapeutic benefits and modes of action of insect bioactive metabolites. Additionally, as many human experiments as possible to explore the biological activities of these bioactive metabolites should also be carried out. Studies focusing on cross-reactivity of edible insects, as well as novelty, smart marketing, and good education can further influence attitudes towards insect consumption.
Data Availability
The datasets generated or analyzed in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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J.I., S.N., K.K. and J.K. contributed to the research design, wrote and revised the manuscript; J.I. processed data, conceptualization and formal analysis; J.I., S.N., K.K. and J.N. data curation and investigation; J.I. drafted the manuscript; all authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors contributed to this work and approved the final text of the manuscript.
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Ishara, J., Ekaette, I., Matendo, R. et al. Potential health benefits of insect bioactive metabolites and consumer attitudes towards edible insects. npj Sci Food 9, 195 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-025-00549-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-025-00549-x
