Abstract
Designing next-generation light-harvesting devices requires a detailed understanding of the transport of photoexcited charge carriers. The record-breaking efficiencies of metal halide perovskite solar cells have been linked to effective charge-carrier diffusion, yet the exact nature of charge-carrier out-of-plane transport remains notoriously difficult to explain. The characteristic spatial inhomogeneity of perovskite films with nanograins and crystallographic disorder calls for the simultaneous and hitherto elusive in situ resolution of the chemical composition, the structural phase and the ultrafast dynamics of the local out-of-plane transport. Here we simultaneously probe the intrinsic out-of-plane charge-carrier diffusion and the nanoscale morphology by pushing depth-sensitive terahertz near-field nanospectroscopy to extreme subcycle timescales. In films of the organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1−xClx)3 (where FA is formamidinium), domains of the cubic α-phase are clearly distinguished from the trigonal δ-phase and PbI2 nano-islands. By analysing deep-subcycle time shifts of the scattered terahertz waveform after photoexcitation, we access the vertical charge-carrier dynamics within single grains. At all of the measured locations, despite topographic irregularities, diffusion is surprisingly homogeneous on the 100 nm scale, although it varies between mesoscopic regions. Linking in situ carrier transport with nanoscale morphology and chemical composition could introduce a paradigm shift for the analysis and optimization of next-generation optoelectronics that are based on nanocrystalline materials.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$32.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on SpringerLink
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the plots within this paper are available from the publication server of the University of Regensburg at https://doi.org/10.5283/epub.58292.
References
Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Shirai, Y. & Miyasaka, T. Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 6050–6051 (2009).
Lee, M. M., Teuscher, J., Miyasaka, T., Murakami, T. N. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Science 338, 643–647 (2012).
Kim, H.-S. et al. Lead iodide perovskite sensitized all-solid-state submicron thin film mesoscopic solar cell with efficiency exceeding 9%. Sci. Rep. 2, 591 (2012).
Stranks, S. D. et al. Electron–hole diffusion lengths exceeding 1 micrometer in an organometal trihalide perovskite absorber. Science 342, 341–344 (2013).
Liu, M., Johnston, M. B. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells by vapour deposition. Nature 501, 395–398 (2013).
Wehrenfennig, C., Eperon, G. E., Johnston, M. B., Snaith, H. J. & Herz, L. M. High charge carrier mobilities and lifetimes in organolead trihalide perovskites. Adv. Mater. 26, 1584–1589 (2014).
Shi, D. et al. Low trap-state density and long carrier diffusion in organolead trihalide perovskite single crystals. Science 347, 519–522 (2015).
Eperon, G. E. et al. Perovskite–perovskite tandem photovoltaics with optimized band gaps. Science 354, 861–865 (2016).
Yoo, J. J. et al. Efficient perovskite solar cells via improved carrier management. Nature 590, 587–593 (2021).
Min, H. et al. Perovskite solar cells with atomically coherent interlayers on SnO2 electrodes. Nature 598, 444–450 (2021).
Sun, Y. et al. Bright and stable perovskite light-emitting diodes in the near-infrared range. Nature 615, 830–835 (2023).
Lin, K. et al. Perovskite light-emitting diodes with external quantum efficiency exceeding 20 per cent. Nature 562, 245–248 (2018).
Feng, J. et al. Single-crystalline layered metal-halide perovskite nanowires for ultrasensitive photodetectors. Nat. Electron. 1, 404–410 (2018).
Zhu, H. et al. Lead halide perovskite nanowire lasers with low lasing thresholds and high quality factors. Nat. Mater. 14, 636–642 (2015).
Huang, C. et al. Ultrafast control of vortex microlasers. Science 367, 1018–1021 (2020).
Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart (NREL, accessed 15 May 2024); https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html
Xue, J., Wang, R. & Yang, Y. The surface of halide perovskites from nano to bulk. Nat. Rev. Mater. 5, 809–827 (2020).
Stoumpos, C. C., Malliakas, C. D. & Kanatzidis, M. G. Semiconducting tin and lead iodide perovskites with organic cations: phase transitions, high mobilities, and near-infrared photoluminescent properties. Inorg. Chem. 52, 9019–9038 (2013).
Szostak, R. et al. Nanoscale mapping of chemical composition in organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite films. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw6619 (2019).
Rothmann, M. U. et al. Atomic-scale microstructure of metal halide perovskite. Science 370, eabb5940 (2020).
Guo, Z., Manser, J. S., Wan, Y., Kamat, P. V. & Huang, L. Spatial and temporal imaging of long-range charge transport in perovskite thin films by ultrafast microscopy. Nat. Commun. 6, 7471 (2015).
Cho, C. et al. Efficient vertical charge transport in polycrystalline halide perovskites revealed by four-dimensional tracking of charge carriers. Nat. Mater. 21, 1388–1395 (2022).
Feng, M., Ye, S., Guo, Y. & Sum, T. C. Intrinsic carrier diffusion in perovskite thin films uncovered by transient reflectance spectroscopy. Nano Lett. 22, 7195–7202 (2022).
Righetto, M. et al. Hot carriers perspective on the nature of traps in perovskites. Nat. Commun. 11, 2712 (2020).
Eisele, M. et al. Ultrafast multi-terahertz nano-spectroscopy with sub-cycle temporal resolution. Nat. Photonics 8, 841–845 (2014).
Wagner, M. et al. Ultrafast and nanoscale plasmonic phenomena in exfoliated graphene revealed by infrared pump–probe nanoscopy. Nano Lett. 14, 894–900 (2014).
Ni, G. X. et al. Ultrafast optical switching of infrared plasmon polaritons in high-mobility graphene. Nat. Photonics 10, 244–247 (2016).
Huber, M. A. et al. Femtosecond photo-switching of interface polaritons in black phosphorus heterostructures. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 207–211 (2017).
Sternbach, A. J. et al. Programmable hyperbolic polaritons in van der Waals semiconductors. Science 371, 617–620 (2021).
Nishida, J. et al. Nanoscale heterogeneity of ultrafast many-body carrier dynamics in triple cation perovskites. Nat. Commun. 13, 6582 (2022).
Plankl, M. et al. Subcycle contact-free nanoscopy of ultrafast interlayer transport in atomically thin heterostructures. Nat. Photonics 15, 594–600 (2021).
Pizzuto, A. et al. Nonlocal time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy in the near field. ACS Photonics 8, 2904–2911 (2021).
Zhang, J. et al. Terahertz nanoimaging of graphene. ACS Photonics 5, 2645–2651 (2018).
Kim, R. H. J. et al. Terahertz nanoimaging of perovskite solar cell materials. ACS Photonics 9, 3550–3556 (2022).
Klarskov, P., Kim, H., Colvin, V. L. & Mittleman, D. M. Nanoscale laser terahertz emission microscopy. ACS Photonics 4, 2676–2680 (2017).
Lohmann, K. B. et al. Solvent-free method for defect reduction and improved performance of p-i-n vapor-deposited perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 1903–1911 (2022).
Maeng, I. et al. Unusual terahertz-wave absorptions in δ/α-mixed-phase FAPbI3 single crystals: interfacial phonon vibration modes. NPG Asia Mater. 13, 75 (2021).
Siday, T. et al. Ultrafast nanoscopy of high-density exciton phases in WSe2. Nano Lett. 22, 2561–2568 (2022).
Govyadinov, A. A. et al. Recovery of permittivity and depth from near-field data as a step toward infrared nanotomography. ACS Nano 8, 6911–6921 (2014).
Mooshammer, F. et al. Nanoscale near-field tomography of surface states on (Bi0.5Sb0.5)2Te3. Nano Lett. 18, 7515–7523 (2018).
Babicheva, V. E., Gamage, S., Stockman, M. I. & Abate, Y. Near-field edge fringes at sharp material boundaries. Opt. Express 25, 23935–23944 (2017).
Wright, A. D. et al. Electron–phonon coupling in hybrid lead halide perovskites. Nat. Commun. 7, 11755 (2016).
Moon, K. et al. Quantitative coherent scattering spectra in apertureless terahertz pulse near-field microscopes. Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 011109 (2012).
Pronin, O. et al. High-power 200 fs Kerr-lens mode-locked Yb:YAG thin-disk oscillator. Opt. Lett. 36, 4746–4748 (2011).
Cvitkovic, A., Ocelic, N. & Hillenbrand, R. Analytical model for quantitative prediction of material contrasts in scattering-type near-field optical microscopy. Opt. Express 15, 8550–8565 (2007).
Hauer, B., Engelhardt, A. P. & Taubner, T. Quasi-analytical model for scattering infrared near-field microscopy on layered systems. Opt. Express 20, 13173–13188 (2012).
Zhan, T. et al. Transfer matrix method for optics in graphene layers. J. Phys. Condens. Matter 25, 215301 (2013).
Liewald, C. et al. All-electronic terahertz nanoscopy. Optica 5, 159–163 (2018).
Aghamiri, N. A. et al. Hyperspectral time-domain terahertz nano-imaging. Opt. Express 27, 24231–24242 (2019).
Davies, C. L., Patel, J. B., Xia, C. Q., Herz, L. M. & Johnston, M. B. Temperature-dependent refractive index of quartz at terahertz frequencies. J. Infrared Millim. Terahertz Waves 39, 1236–1248 (2018).
Frisenda, R. et al. Characterization of highly crystalline lead iodide nanosheets prepared by room-temperature solution processing. Nanotechnology 28, 455703 (2017).
Mooshammer, F. et al. Quantitative terahertz emission nanoscopy with multiresonant near-field probes. Opt. Lett. 46, 3572–3575 (2021).
Mester, L., Govyadinov, A. A. & Hillenbrand, R. High-fidelity nano-FTIR spectroscopy by on-pixel normalization of signal harmonics. Nanophotonics 11, 377–390 (2022).
Hasselbeck, M. P. et al. Emission of terahertz radiation from coupled plasmon-phonon modes in InAs. Phys. Rev. B 65, 233203 (2002).
Wang, S., Xiao, W. & Wang, F. Structural, electronic, and optical properties of cubic formamidinium lead iodide perovskite: a first-principles investigation. RSC Adv. 10, 32364–32369 (2020).
Ndione, P. F., Li, Z. & Zhu, K. Effects of alloying on the optical properties of organic–inorganic lead halide perovskite thin films. J. Mater. Chem. C 4, 7775–7782 (2016).
Poellmann, C. et al. Resonant internal quantum transitions and femtosecond radiative decay of excitons in monolayer WSe2. Nat. Mater. 14, 889–893 (2015).
Crothers, T. W. et al. Photon reabsorption masks intrinsic bimolecular charge-carrier recombination in CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite. Nano Lett. 17, 5782–5789 (2017).
Schinke, C. et al. Uncertainty analysis for the coefficient of band-to-band absorption of crystalline silicon. AIP Adv. 5, 067168 (2015).
Vuye, G. et al. Temperature dependence of the dielectric function of silicon using in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry. Thin Solid Films 233, 166–170 (1993).
Canali, C., Nava, F. & Reggiani, L. in Hot-Electron Transport in Semiconductors Vol. 58 (ed. Reggiani, L.) 87–112 (Springer, 1985)
Thomas, R. E. in Solar Energy Conversion: An Introductory Course 1st edn (eds Dixon, A. E. & Leslie, J. D.) 805–830 (Pergamon, 1979)
Chen, Y. et al. Optoelectronic properties of mixed iodide–bromide perovskites from first-principles computational modeling and experiment. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 13, 4184–4192 (2022).
Fu, M. et al. Unraveling exciton–phonon coupling in individual FAPbI3 nanocrystals emitting near-infrared single photons. Nat. Commun. 9, 3318 (2018).
Carpenella, V. et al. High-pressure behavior of δ-phase of formamidinium lead iodide by optical spectroscopies. J. Phys. Chem. C 127, 2440–2447 (2023).
Julien, C., Mavi, H. S. & Chévy, A. Temperature dependence of the vibrational properties of PbI2. Phys. Status Solidi 177, 143–155 (1993).
Pedesseau, L. et al. Vibrational properties of 2H-PbI2 semiconductors studied via density functional theory calculations. Thin Solid Films 541, 9–11 (2013).
Acknowledgements
We thank M. Furthmeier for technical assistance. The work in Regensburg has been funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; German Research Foundation) through projects 314695032—SFB 1277, 277164313 and 326843318 as well as through research grant HU1598/8 (M.Z., S.N., F. Sandner, F. Schiegl, C.M., Y.A.G., T.S., M.A.H. and R.H.). We thank the EPSRC (UK) for financial support through grants EP/T025077/1 and EP/V010840/1 (Q.Y., K.B.L., L.M.H., T.S. and M.B.J.). M.B.J. is grateful to the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung for a Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research Award, which facilitated this project. Q.Y. acknowledges the support of Rank Prize through a Return to Research grant.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
M.A.H., M.B.J. and R.H. conceived and supervised the study. M.Z., S.N., F. Sandner, F. Schiegl, C.M., Y.A.G., T.S. and M.A.H. performed the experiments and analysed the data. Q.Y., K.B.L., L.M.H. and M.B.J. fabricated the samples. All authors contributed to the discussions of the results. M.Z., S.N. and M.A.H. computed the multilayer scattering model. The manuscript was written by M.Z., S.N., T.S., M.A.H., M.B.J. and R.H., with input and contributions from all authors.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Peer review
Peer review information
Nature Photonics thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Time domain scattering response Ej (left column), corresponding spectral amplitude Êj (central column) and retraction curve measured at the peak of the waveform Êj (right column) measured on different samples.
The experimental data are shown for the first (j=1), second (j=2) and third (j=3) demodulation order for α-phase FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1−xClx)3 (blue), a typical PbI2 protrusion (green), an undoped silicon reference sample (red) and a gold reference (yellow). On all samples and for all demodulation orders, a replica of the initial THz pulse can be identified at a delay of tEOS ≈ 2.6 ps, which originates from a reflection off the end of the cantilever of the incident THz pulse coupled into the tip52. In the frequency domain, this replica manifests as a periodic modulation of the spectral amplitude. In addition, the retraction curves of the pump-induced change for the silicon reference sample are shown for the first and second demodulation order. The horizontal dashed lines indicate the 1/e-value. See Methods for more details.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Classification of locations on the perovskite sample according to their crystallographic configuration and chemical composition.
a, Atomic force microscopy image of the FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1−xClx)3 sample surface. The inset shows the topography map of a different part of the perovskite film. The symbols indicate positions where spectroscopic measurements have been performed. In addition, symbols are assigned to the locations presented in Fig. 1. b, Corresponding near-field signal on the peak of the THz waveform Ê2. c, Spectral amplitude and phase of the third demodulation order relative to the second. The locations have been classified according to the spectral features attributed to the perovskite α-phase (first column, blue), non-perovskite δ-phase (second column, orange) and PbI2 (third column, green) in Fig. 1. All spectral responses of one category look nearly identical apart from their offset. In addition, an offset between the data from individual locations has been added for clarity.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Nano-spectroscopy across a grain boundary of the FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3 sample.
a, Topography map of two grains with lateral extensions on the order of 100 nm. b, Peak amplitude of the scattered near field Ê2 (tEOS = 0 fs) as a function of tip position with the characteristic signal enhancement in grain boundaries. c, Relative spectral amplitude and phase at five positions across a grain boundary. The colours represent the position markers in a. We attribute the signal enhancement within the grain boundary to a topographic artifact since it shows no change in spectral shape, but only in signal strength. We have chosen a location where we transition from a grain in the perovskite α-phase (blue sphere) to a PbI2-covered grain (green sphere). This transition is clearly reflected in the corresponding spectral response: All spectra show the phonon peak around 1 THz characteristic of the α-phase FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3. This is also true at the grain boundary. However, as the tip moves further onto the PbI2 protrusion, the amplitude of this feature decreases in favour of the characteristic spectral response of PbI2. Because the PbI2 layer studied here is thinner (~30 nm) than the one discussed in Fig. 1 (~60 nm) the low-frequency phonon of the α-phase contributes more strongly to the spectral response. The data are shown as mean values of 10 measurements per spectrum and the error bars indicate the corresponding standard error.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Linear scaling of the pump-induced near-field signal of FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3 with the pump fluence.
a, Pump-induced scattered waveforms ∆E1 \(({t}_{{\rm{p}}}=7.5\,{\rm{ps}};\; {\rm{tapping}}\; {\rm{amplitude}},\,160\,{\rm{nm}})\) recorded on α-phase FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3 for different fluences. \({\phi }_{0}^{\mathrm{pump}}=14.5\) µJ cm−2 indicates the fluence used in the main part of the manuscript. No change in the shape of the waveform is observed upon variation of fluence. As a guide to the eye, a reference waveform obtained by smoothing the one measured with the fluence used in the manuscript is overlayed with each waveform (black). b, Corresponding relative pump-induced spectral amplitude for different pump fluences. c, Pump fluence dependence of the peak of the pump-induced waveform ∆Ê1 \(({t}_{{\rm{EOS}}}=-50\,{\rm{fs}},\,{t}_{{\rm{p}}}=7.5\,{\rm{ps}})\). Even for fluences more than twice of the maximum fluence used in the manuscript (dashed black line), a linear relation is measured, as visualized by a linear guide to the eye (dashed blue line).
Extended Data Fig. 6 Effect of photon reabsorption on the extracted diffusion coefficient.
a, Schematic of the employed photon reabsorption model. The absorption of photons at position P reemitted at position M is considered. To include the effect of reflections at the sample surface and sample-substrate interface, additional emitters are symbolically placed outside the sample volume, where M1,1 and M2,1 are the positions of the emitters representing the first reflection. b, Experimentally measured evolution of t0 as a function of pump delay time tp (blue spheres) and modelled response from Fig. 3b without (blue dashed curve) and with the effect of photon reabsorption (red dashed curve). The effect of photon reabsorption is negligible within our experimental error. Statistics and error bars: see Fig. 3b. c, Vertical profile of the three-dimensional charge-carrier density with and without photon reabsorption for an intermediate and late pump delay time (top and bottom panel, respectively).
Extended Data Fig. 7 Extracting the vertical diffusion of charge carriers in a high-resistivity z-cut silicon wafer for different photoexcitation wavelengths.
a, Pump-induced waveforms ∆E1 for pump delay times of 10 ps and 510 ps after photoexcitation with a wavelength of 1030 nm (red) and 515 nm (green), respectively. The unpumped response E1 is shown for reference (black). For excitation with 515 nm, the pump-induced waveform shifts to larger EOS times with increasing pump delay time (zero-crossings indicated by vertical dashed lines). This shift is barely visible when the e–h pairs are photogenerated at a wavelength of 1030 nm, owing to the larger absorption length of silicon at the larger wavelength. b, Evolution of t0 as a function of pump delay time tp for pump wavelengths of 515 nm (green spheres) and 1030 nm (red spheres). Applying our model, where we also account for surface recombination to describe the charge-carrier dynamics in silicon in accordance with existing studies (surface recombination velocity, S = 9 × 104 cm s−1), yields a diffusion coefficient of D = 12 cm2s−1 in excellent agreement with literature. Each data point and error bar indicates the zero-crossing and the 68% confidence interval, respectively, extracted by a parametric fit (Methods) to a pump-induced THz waveform ∆E1 consisting of 27 data points. c, Extracted vertical profile of the three-dimensional charge-carrier density in silicon for different pump delay times tp after photoexcitation with a wavelength of 515 nm (green lines, steep profile) and 1030 nm (red lines, flat profile).
Extended Data Fig. 8 Impact of varying model parameters on the evolution of the zero-crossing.
The grey dashed lines show the impact of varying the diffusion coefficient D, the monomolecular recombination coefficient k1, the bimolecular recombination coefficient k2, the Auger recombination coefficient k3, and the fluence ϕpump in the diffusion model. For reference, the experimentally extracted zero-crossings (blue spheres) and the fit from Fig. 3b (blue dashed lines) are shown in each panel. Dm, \({k}_{1}^{{\rm{m}}}\), \({k}_{2}^{{\rm{m}}}\), \({k}_{3}^{{\rm{m}}}\) and ϕ0pump denote the respective values used in the manuscript. Only one parameter has been changed in each panel, while the others are kept as the value used in the manuscript. Statistics and error bars: see Fig. 3b.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Extraction of the diffusion coefficient along a line across different grains of the FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3 sample.
a, Height profile (black line) and extracted zero-crossing along the black dashed line in the AFM image in Fig. 4c for \({t}_{{\rm{p}}}=2\,{\rm{ps}}\) (black spheres) and \({t}_{{\rm{p}}}=509\,{\rm{ps}}\) (top edge of the grey shaded area; fluence, 14.5 µJ cm−2). Each data point and error bar indicates the zero-crossing and the 68% confidence interval, respectively, extracted by a parametric fit (Methods) to a pump-induced THz waveform ∆E1 consisting of 39 data points. The coloured spheres represent points where spectra of the equilibrium sample were taken for phonon fingerprinting (see b). b, Spectral amplitude (top row) and phase (bottom row) of the third demodulation order of the scattered signal relative to the second (\(\widetilde{E}\)3/\(\widetilde{E}\)2 and Φ3 - Φ2) recorded on the positions marked by the coloured spheres in a and Fig. 4d. The response is decomposed in a linear combination of the three main spectral contributions (α, δ, PbI2 see Fig. 1e). If one contribution dominates (percentages > 75%), the position is marked in blue for α-phase perovskite, green for PbI2, and grey for a mixed response in a and Fig. 4d. c, Mapping curve between relative time shift Δt0 = t0 (\({t}_{p}=509\,{\rm{ps}}\)) – t0 (\({t}_{p}=2\,{\rm{ps}}\)) and diffusion coefficient D calculated for α-phase FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3 using the parameters in the Methods section.
Extended Data Fig. 10 First indications of faster carrier recombination at grain boundaries.
a, b, Height map and peak amplitude of the scattered near field Ê2 as a function of the tip position on FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I1–xClx)3. c, Photo-induced response along different grain boundaries recorded along the black dashed arrow in a (fluence, 14.5 µJ cm−2). For an early pump delay time of \({t}_{{\rm{p}}}=9\,{\rm{ps}}\) (red line), ∆Ê1 is increased at grain boundaries. The observed profile roughly follows the spatial dependence of the total scattered electric field Ê2 (top black line), which likely stems from an artificial signal enhancement by the topography of the troughs. The similarity in scattering contrast of ∆Ê1 and Ê2 is in line with an initially homogeneous photo-induced charge-carrier density in grains and grain boundaries. However, at a later pump delay time of \({t}_{{\rm{p}}}=509\,{\rm{ps}}\) (blue line), this relative increase is absent (see dashed ellipsoids), hinting towards a lower concentration of mobile carriers inside grain boundaries relative to the grains. This may originate from increased carrier recombination and/or trapping at grain boundaries. The lines in the top and central panel represent a running average over 15 data points corresponding to a spatial width of ~35 nm. The blue/green spheres superimposed on the height of the line scan (bottom black line) indicate the locations where steady-state spectra were recorded to identify the chemical composition/crystallographic phase of the respective grain. The beige/green/blue shading, the dashed ellipsoids, the red/blue curved lines and the red shading in the central panel of c serve as a guide to the eye.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zizlsperger, M., Nerreter, S., Yuan, Q. et al. In situ nanoscopy of single-grain nanomorphology and ultrafast carrier dynamics in metal halide perovskites. Nat. Photon. 18, 975–981 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-024-01476-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-024-01476-1
