Introduction

The concept of smart cities has garnered significant attention in recent years due to advancements in technology and the increasing urban population. As cities become more crowded and complex, there is a growing need for innovative solutions to tackle urban challenges like traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and energy consumption. Smart cities aim to leverage technology to enhance the quality of life for residents, promote sustainability, and optimize urban systems’ efficiency. Nevertheless, the implementation of smart city technologies introduces a range of legal and ethical dilemmas, particularly concerning citizenship, civic rights, security, and privacy1,2,3,4. As cities become more digitally connected, citizens are increasingly vulnerable to cyber threats and privacy violations, which can have significant implications for their safety and well-being. Therefore, it is essential to establish a legal framework that ensures the protection of citizens’ fundamental rights while also promoting innovation and economic growth. This paper aims to explore the importance of smart city regulations in fostering a culture of citizenship and ensuring the protection of civic rights, security, and privacy in urban areas5,6,7.

Smart cities are urban environments that harness technology to improve the quality of life for residents, foster sustainability, and optimize the efficiency of urban systems. This involves implementing various technological solutions such as intelligent transportation, energy-efficient structures, and smart waste management. However, the integration of smart city technologies also introduces legal and ethical challenges, specifically pertaining to data protection and privacy. As cities become more interconnected, the gathering, analysis, and dissemination of individuals’ personal data by multiple entities raise apprehensions regarding potential privacy breaches and cyber risks like identity theft and unauthorized data access8,9,10,11. These regulations can include policies related to data protection, cybersecurity, and citizen participation in decision-making processes. Data protection policies can include measures such as data anonymization, data minimization, and data encryption to protect citizens’ personal data from unauthorized access and misuse. Cybersecurity policies can include measures such as network security, system security, and incident response planning to protect smart city infrastructure from cyber threats12,13,14,15,16. Citizen participation policies can include measures such as public consultations, citizen feedback mechanisms, and participatory budgeting to ensure that citizens are involved in decision-making processes and that their voices are heard. The article identifies several important research gaps that warrant further exploration17,18,19,20,21,22. While the theoretical necessity of smart city regulations is discussed, there is a need for more empirical research examining the practical implementation and impact of such regulatory frameworks. Additionally, the article notes a lack of cross-cultural and cross-national comparisons, which could provide valuable insights into how these regulations vary and are implemented across different contexts23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35. As emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoTs), and blockchain continue to advance, research is also needed to understand the regulatory implications of these evolving smart city technologies. Finally, the article acknowledges the underrepresentation of citizen perspectives and calls for more direct incorporation of the views, concerns, and lived experiences of urban residents in the development and evaluation of smart city regulations. The growth of renewable energy has been a key driver of the expanding green jobs sector. As countries and communities around the world work to transition away from fossil fuels, the demand for skilled workers in fields like solar panel installation, wind turbine maintenance, and green building construction has surged. In the United States, the number of jobs in the renewable energy industry grew by over 70% between 2015 and 2020, far outpacing overall job growth. Globally, renewable energy capacity has more than doubled over the past decade, with solar and wind power leading the charge. This rapid expansion of renewable energy infrastructure has created millions of green jobs worldwide, from engineering roles designing new technologies to manual labor positions constructing clean energy projects. As governments and businesses continue to invest heavily in renewable power, the green jobs market is poised for even greater growth in the years ahead, offering both economic and environmental benefits for communities. The global capacity for renewable energy generation has grown rapidly in recent years, offering promising signs for the transition to a more sustainable energy system. Over the past decade, renewable energy capacity has more than doubled, driven by major investments and policy support for clean power sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric. In 2021, global renewable energy capacity reached over 3,000 gigawatts, a 17% increase from the previous year. Solar power has been the fastest-growing renewable technology, with its global capacity increasing by 22% in 2021 alone. Wind energy has also seen substantial growth, now accounting for over a quarter of total renewable capacity worldwide. This rapid expansion of renewable energy infrastructure is essential for countries to meet their climate goals and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. As technological advancements continue to drive down the costs of renewable energy, the world’s renewable capacity is projected to keep rising in the years ahead, further accelerating the shift towards a low-carbon energy future. As new technologies emerge and smart cities continue to evolve, it will be crucial to monitor and update these regulations to ensure that they remain effective in addressing the challenges of urban governance in the digital age. In the continuation of this study, a shallow progressive artificial neural network (SPANN) with a hidden layer was constructed to examine the variables investigated in this research, including the assessment of cyber security regulations, citizen participation, and the law governing the sharing of cyber security information, with a focus on their implications for the development of smart city regulations and data protection regulations on a broader scale. The inputs to the neural network consisted of the aforementioned factors. Furthermore, the error of ANN was assessed using linear regression. The outcomes projected by the ANN were documented, and the accuracy of the estimations was evaluated. The paper begins by providing an overview of smart cities and their potential benefits and challenges. It will then examine key policies and regulations related to data protection, cybersecurity, and citizen participation in decision-making processes. Finally, the paper will conclude by discussing the future of smart city regulations and the potential implications of emerging technologies for urban governance. The article shows a thorough examination of how regulatory frameworks can strike a balance between the advantages of smart city technologies and the preservation of citizen rights, privacy, and security, utilizing an innovative ANN modeling approach. The study shows the necessity for continuous monitoring, assessment, and adaptation of smart city regulations to keep pace with the rapid evolution of technologies and evolving citizen needs, emphasizing the importance of incorporating real-world data and broadening the range of variables analyzed. However, the article shows its reliance on secondary sources as a limitation and the absence of cross-cultural and cross-national comparisons. This article shows for the integration of primary empirical data and an exploration of the regulatory implications of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and blockchain, within diverse urban settings.

Balancing innovation and regulatory challenges of smart cities

The governance of smart cities necessitates the careful balance between technological innovation and the protection of citizens’ fundamental rights, particularly in the realms of privacy, data security, and cybersecurity. As smart city infrastructure becomes increasingly interconnected and reliant on the collection and analysis of vast amounts of personal data, regulatory frameworks must evolve to safeguard individual privacy and ensure that the aggregation and use of this information is transparent, secure, and aligned with ethical principles. Smart city regulations should establish robust data protection policies, clear guidelines for data collection and sharing, and stringent cybersecurity measures to mitigate the risks of hacking, data breaches, and other malicious cyber threats25,26,27,28,29,30,31. At the same time, these regulations must be flexible enough to accommodate the rapid pace of technological change and enable the responsible deployment of emerging tools, such as artificial intelligence and the IoTs, which can enhance the efficiency and responsiveness of urban systems. Striking the right balance between innovation and individual rights is crucial for building smart cities that are not only technologically advanced but also prioritize the privacy, security, and well-being of their citizens. The rapid proliferation of smart city technologies has introduced significant benefits in areas like transportation, energy, and public safety. However, the widespread collection and use of personal data by these technologies also poses serious risks to citizen privacy. Without adequate public awareness and engagement, smart city initiatives may erode public trust and face significant resistance due to privacy concerns. There is a critical need to develop effective public awareness campaigns that can educate citizens on both the advantages and the privacy implications of smart city technologies. Such campaigns should promote transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in order to strike the right balance between innovation and data protection. Addressing this problem is vital for ensuring the long-term sustainability and social acceptance of smart city development.

Research methodology

Methodology for studying smart city regulations and citizen rights

The research methodology for studying the impact of smart city regulations on citizenship, citizen rights, security, and privacy can employ a combination of qualitative research methods. This may involve conducting interviews with policymakers, urban planners, and technology experts to understand their perspectives on the development and implementation of smart city regulations. Additionally, focus group discussions with citizens can provide insights into their concerns and priorities regarding the impact of smart city technologies on citizenship and civil liberties. Data analysis can also be conducted to assess the effectiveness of data protection and cybersecurity policies in preventing privacy breaches and cyber threats. Complementing these primary research methods, a review of existing literature and case studies can be undertaken to contextualize the current state of smart city regulations and their impact on citizenship and citizen rights in various settings. This investigation utilized a combination of input and output variables to model the regulatory framework governing smart cities, with the aim of fostering sustainable urban development while safeguarding the rights of citizens. Based on an extensive review of the relevant literature26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43, two input variables were selected: (1) Smart City Regulations and (2) Data Protection Regulations. Additionally, three output variables were identified: (1) Cybersecurity Regulations, (2) Citizen Participation, and (3) Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act. These selected input and output variables served as the foundation for an ANN modeling approach. The ANN model was employed to predict and optimize the optimal conditions for striking a balance between leveraging smart city technologies and protecting the rights of citizens within the context of sustainable urban development. The data for the input and output variables was obtained from reputable sources and subjected to necessary preprocessing. The ANN model was trained, validated, and tested using established techniques to ensure the reliability and robustness of the predictions. The model’s performance was evaluated using relevant metrics, and the results were analyzed to provide insights and recommendations for policymakers and urban planners. A mixed-methods approach that combines qualitative and quantitative research methods can provide a comprehensive understanding of smart city regulations and their impact on citizenship, civic rights, security, and privacy. This can help inform policymakers and urban planners in developing effective regulations that balance innovation with the protection of citizens’ fundamental rights. This research aimed to predict the effects of reviewing cyber security regulations, citizen participation, and the sharing of cyber security information on the creation of smart city regulations in a broader range (0–90%) and the inclusion of data protection regulations. The study employed a shallow, progressive ANN architecture. The input layer consisted of intelligent inputs, and the hidden layer had 5 neurons. The number of neurons in the hidden layer was determined by multiplying the number of inputs by 2 and adding one additional neuron to facilitate faster convergence. The outputs of the neural network were related to the review of cybersecurity regulations, citizen participation, and the sharing of cybersecurity information. The nonlinear sigmoid function was used as the activation function, which enabled more accurate predictions and faster convergence due to its nonlinear nature. The network was trained, and the results were estimated by optimizing the error function using the gradient descent algorithm. To enhance accuracy and convergence, the input data from Table 1 were normalized before estimation and denormalized after obtaining the final results, ensuring that the final results were reported within an acceptable range. The accuracy of the ANN in predicting results was assessed by determining the network error through linear regression analysis. The predicted results were normalized and a graph was fitted to the estimated results at different points. The fitted graph obtained from linear regression was then compared to the y = x graph (representing 100% accurate estimation according to the input targets from Table 1) to determine the error of the ANN. The subsequent sections of this research will delve into the investigation of the results obtained from the ANN.

Unveiling insights with ANN analysis

The article’s central methodological innovation lies in its leveraging of ANNs to analyze the complex, interrelated factors influencing smart city regulatory frameworks. By employing a shallow progressive ANN model, the researchers were able to uncover nonlinear relationships and interdependencies between critical policy domains, such as data protection, cybersecurity, and citizen participation. This innovative analytical approach represents a significant advancement over traditional statistical methods, demonstrating the capacity of data-driven, computational techniques to generate valuable insights that can inform the development of comprehensive, evidence-based smart city governance policies. The article’s pioneering use of ANNs not only highlights the applicability of advanced analytical tools in this emerging policy arena but also underscores the importance of embracing technological progress to tackle the multifaceted challenges of modern urban environments. This methodological contribution serves as a foundation for future research that can further explore the role of machine learning and artificial intelligence in shaping the regulatory landscape of smart cities.

Results and discussion

The role of policies and regulations in ensuring citizen privacy and security in smart cities

Smart cities have the potential to transform urban life by leveraging technology to enhance sustainability, increase efficiency, and improve the quality of life for citizens. However, the implementation of smart city technologies also raises concerns about privacy, security, and the protection of citizens’ fundamental rights15,16,17,18. This can help build trust and confidence in smart city technologies and their regulation, leading to greater acceptance and adoption of these technologies. Another key finding is that effective data protection and cybersecurity policies are essential to ensuring the privacy and security of citizens’ personal data. Figure 1 shows the crucial role that policies and regulations play in ensuring citizen privacy and security in smart cities. As smart city technologies continue to be developed and deployed, it is essential to establish clear and effective policies and regulations that govern the collection, storage, and use of personal data. This includes measures such as data anonymization, data minimization, and data encryption, as well as network security, system security, and incident response planning.

Fig. 1
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The role of policies and regulations in ensuring citizen privacy and security in smart cities.

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The research conducted on the topic of smart city regulations and their impact on citizenship, civic rights, security, and privacy indicates that there is a growing awareness of these issues among policymakers, urban planners, and citizens. Many smart city initiatives now include policies and regulations to protect citizens’ personal data and ensure their privacy and security. One of the key findings of this research is that citizen participation is essential to the success of smart city initiatives. Citizens need to be involved in decision-making processes related to smart city technologies to ensure that their concerns and priorities are taken into account. This involves measures such as data anonymization, data minimization, and data. One of the key roles of government agencies in developed countries is to establish policies and regulations to protect citizens’ data and information21,22,23,24,25,26,27. This includes measures such as data protection laws, cybersecurity policies, and regulations related to the collection, storage, and use of personal data. In addition, government agencies are responsible for ensuring that smart city technologies are developed and regulated in a way that protects citizens’ fundamental rights, including the right to privacy and security.

Role of private companies and NGOs in ensuring citizen data privacy in smart cities

Private enterprises are crucial contributors to the advancement of smart cities, with a specific emphasis on technology and infrastructure. They actively participate in the development and implementation of a wide range of smart city technologies, including intelligent transportation systems, energy-efficient buildings, and efficient waste management systems. However, along with their involvement, these companies bear the responsibility of safeguarding citizens’ data and ensuring that their technological solutions are designed and utilized in a manner that aligns with citizens’ fundamental rights. In this process, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a vital role by advocating for citizens’ rights, fostering transparency, and promoting accountability throughout the development of smart cities. NGOs have the ability to raise awareness regarding the potential risks and challenges associated with smart city technologies and advocate for the implementation of policies and regulations that effectively protect citizens’ data and information27,28,29,30,31.

To safeguard citizens’ data and information, it is of utmost importance to establish explicit and effective policies and regulations that govern the collection, storage, and utilization of personal data. This includes implementing measures such as data anonymization, minimization, and encryption, as well as ensuring robust network and system security, and comprehensive incident response planning. Additionally, mechanisms must be established to enable citizens to report privacy violations and hold organizations accountable for any misuse of personal data. Given the interconnected nature of smart city development and data protection, collaboration among government agencies, private enterprises, and NGOs is essential. The implementation of effective policies and regulations is indispensable in ensuring that smart city technologies are developed and utilized in a manner that safeguards citizens’ fundamental rights, including the right to privacy and security. Furthermore, empowering citizens to report privacy violations and ensuring accountability for any misuse of personal data are crucial aspects of this endeavor32,33,34,35,36.

Privacy violations in smart cities

The study explores the potential of ANN in modeling smart city regulatory frameworks, balancing innovation and citizen rights. However, limitations include reliance on secondary sources, a narrow scope, and lack of real-world implementation. Future work should incorporate empirical data, expand variables, and validate the model in diverse contexts to ensure long-term sustainability. Privacy violations can have significant implications for citizens’ safety and well-being. If personal data is collected and used by malicious actors, it can lead to identity theft, financial fraud, and other types of cybercrime. In addition, if surveillance technologies are used in a way that is inconsistent with citizens’ expectations, it can erode trust and confidence in smart city technologies and their regulation. To prevent privacy violations in smart cities, it is essential to establish clear and effective policies and regulations that govern the collection, storage, and use of personal data38,39,40,41,42.

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Privacy violations in smart cities.

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This includes measures such as data anonymization, data minimization, and data encryption, as well as network security, system security, and incident response planning. It is also essential to establish mechanisms for citizens to report privacy violations and to hold organizations accountable for any misuse of personal data. The protecting citizens’ privacy is essential to building trust and confidence in smart city technologies and their regulation. It requires ongoing research, evaluation, and collaboration between government agencies, private companies, and NGOs to ensure that smart city technologies are developed and used in a way that is consistent with citizens’ fundamental rights, including the right to privacy and security43,44,45. Figure 2 illustrates the various types of privacy violations that can occur in the context of smart cities. One of the main types of privacy violations is unauthorized data collection and use. This can occur when personal data is collected and used without citizens’ knowledge or consent. A smart transportation system may track citizens’ travel patterns and destinations without obtaining their consent. Similarly, smart energy systems may collect data on citizens’ energy usage without their consent.

Enhancing urban life while addressing privacy and security concerns

Smart city technologies are a collection of advanced technologies and data analytics tools that are used to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and livability of urban environments33,34,35,36,37. These systems use data analytics and automation to optimize waste collection and disposal, reduce waste generation, and promote recycling and composting. This can include technologies such as smart bins, waste sorting systems, and waste-to-energy systems. Smart city technologies have the potential to transform urban life by enhancing sustainability, increasing efficiency, and improving the quality of life for citizens38,39,40,41,42,43,44. However, the implementation of these technologies also raises concerns about privacy, security, and the protection of citizens’ fundamental rights46,47,48,49,50,51. It is essential to establish clear and effective policies and regulations to ensure that smart city technologies are developed and used in a way that protects citizens’ rights and promotes the well-being of urban environments52,53,54. Figure 3 shows the diverse range of smart city technologies that are being leveraged to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and overall livability of urban environments. The illustration highlights the interconnected nature of these innovative solutions, which span domains such as transportation, energy, water management, waste disposal, and citizen engagement. Smart city technologies in the transportation sector include intelligent traffic management systems, autonomous vehicles, and integrated multimodal mobility platforms, while in the energy domain, smart grids, renewable energy generation, and real-time monitoring and optimization tools help cities reduce their carbon footprint.

Fig. 3
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Smart city technologies.

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Figure 3 illustrates some of the key smart city technologies that are used to enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and livability of urban environments. Water management is transformed through sensors, predictive analytics, and leak detection systems, and the integration of IoT devices, data analytics, and automated waste collection systems can enhance the efficiency and sustainability of urban waste management.

Privacy violations in smart cities

Smart city technologies can enable privacy violations by collecting personal data without citizen consent, such as tracking travel patterns or energy usage. Balancing innovation and citizen rights is crucial, requiring comprehensive regulatory frameworks that are validated across diverse contexts and adaptable to evolving technologies and needs33,34,35,36,37,54,55,56,57,58. Smart energy systems are also a key component of smart cities. These systems use data analytics and automation to optimize energy production and distribution, reduce energy consumption, and promote the use of renewable energy sources. This can include technologies such as smart grids, energy storage systems, and energy-efficient buildings. Smart waste management systems are another example of smart city technology. These systems use data analytics and automation to optimize waste collection and disposal, reduce waste generation, and promote recycling and composting. This can include technologies such as smart bins, waste sorting systems, and waste-to-energy systems29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36.

Table 1 Evolution of smart city regulations and key factors: a comparative analysis (2019–2022)
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Table 1 shows the evolution of smart city regulations and key factors from 2019 to 2022. The percentages assigned to Smart City Regulations, Data Protection Regulations, Cybersecurity Regulations, Citizen Participation, and the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act indicate the level of development and emphasis placed on each aspect. Over the years, there was a consistent upward trend in the assigned percentages, reflecting the progressive strengthening of the regulatory framework. Notably, Data Protection Regulations and Cybersecurity Regulations consistently received high ratings, highlighting the importance of safeguarding data privacy and addressing cybersecurity risks. The ratings for Citizen Participation and the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act also increased, indicating an increasing focus on involving citizens in decision-making processes and fostering collaboration in addressing cybersecurity challenges. This comparative analysis demonstrates the continuous efforts to create a secure and inclusive smart city ecosystem through robust regulations and key factors. As the years progress, there is an evident increase in the assigned percentages for Smart City Regulations, Data Protection Regulations, and Cybersecurity Regulations. This suggests a concerted effort to enhance the regulatory framework and address the evolving challenges related to data privacy and cybersecurity in smart cities. Furthermore, the increase in Citizen Participation ratings indicates a growing recognition of the importance of involving citizens in decision-making processes and fostering their active engagement in shaping the development of smart cities. This heightened citizen participation is likely influenced by the parallel advancements in Smart City Regulations and Data Protection Regulations, as these regulations set the foundation for transparency, accountability, and citizen-centric policies. The assigned percentages for the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act also exhibit a positive correlation with the other factors. As Cybersecurity Regulations strengthen, the importance of information sharing between public and private sector organizations becomes more pronounced, leading to an increase in the rating of the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act. This demonstrates a recognition of the collaborative nature of cybersecurity efforts and the need for effective information exchange to improve overall cybersecurity resilience in smart city environments.

Fig. 4
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The results obtained from the ANN in order to predict the examination of cyber security regulations tested in this study.

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Figure 4 shows the predicted results for checking cyber security regulations by neural network. As it is clear from Fig. 4, with the establishment of smart city regulations, the recovery percentage has increased steadily. But the combination of smart city regulations and data protection will drive further growth in cyber security. Examining the results for creating smart city regulations and data protection regulations in different years also shows cyber security regulations, citizen participation, cyber security information sharing law. The percentages allocated to smart city regulations, data protection regulations, cyber security regulations, citizen participation and cyber security information sharing law indicate the level of development. And every aspect is emphasized. Over the years, there has been a steady upward trend in the set percentages, indicating a gradual strengthening of the regulatory framework. As the years progress, the percentages set for smart city regulations, data protection regulations and cyber security regulations are clearly increasing. This represents a concerted effort to enhance the legal framework and address the evolving challenges of data privacy and cyber security in smart cities. In addition, the increase in the ranking of citizens’ participation shows the growing recognition of the importance of citizens’ participation in decision-making processes and strengthening their active participation in shaping the development of smart cities. This increase in citizen participation is likely influenced by parallel developments in smart city regulations and data protection regulations, as these regulations lay the basis for transparency, accountability and citizen-centric policies. As mentioned in the previous sections, in order to anticipate the review of cyber security regulations, citizen participation, cyber security information sharing law with the creation of smart city regulations, data protection regulations, a progressive neural network is formed according to Table 1.

Fig. 5
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The results obtained from the ANN in order to predict the participation of the citizens tested in this study.

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Functions include review of cyber security regulations, citizen participation, cyber security information sharing law with increased creation of smart city regulations in the range of 0–90%, and data protection regulations in the range of 0–92% predicted and reviewed. Figure 5 also shows the results estimated by the neural network for citizens’ participation. As it can be understood, from a certain point on, the participation of citizens takes a gentle slope, because it is much easier to participate in the first stages, but from a point on, since saturation has taken place and grown, other things must be done. entered in order to have the growing process of citizens’ participation (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
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The results obtained from the ANN in order to predict the cyber security information sharing law tested.

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Figure 6 show the use of ANNs to model and predict key aspects of smart city cyber security regulations and information sharing practices. Figure 6 presents the results obtained from an ANN trained to predict the adoption of a cyber security information sharing law based on various input variables. This predictive model provides valuable insights into the factors that influence the implementation of such regulatory mechanisms, which are crucial for establishing secure and resilient smart city infrastructure. Furthermore, Fig. 7 illustrates the schematic of the ANN architecture employed in this analysis. The model consists of an input layer with two nodes, representing factors such as the creation of green jobs and the addition of renewable energy capacity over a 4-year period, and a hidden layer with five neurons. This ANN structure was used to predict outcomes related to cyber security regulation review, citizen participation, and the implementation of a security information sharing law.

Fig. 7
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Schematic of an ANN with a hidden layer consisting of 5 neurons and 2 inputs creating green jobs, adding renewable energy capacity in 4 years to predict cyber security regulation review, citizen participation, security information sharing law.

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Figure 7 shows an ANN with a hidden layer comprising 5 neurons and two input variables. The primary objective of this ANN is to forecast various elements concerning green job creation, the addition of renewable energy capacity within a four-year time frame, and specific aspects of cyber security regulation. The input variables utilized by the ANN are “Smart City Regulations” and “Data Protection Regulations.” The anticipated output variables are “Cybersecurity Regulations,” “Citizen Participation,” and the “Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act.” The ANN processes the input variables through its hidden layer, which encompasses the five neurons. These neurons perform computations on the inputs and assign weights to generate an output. Unfortunately, the specific details regarding the computations and weights are not provided in the available information. The output of the ANN represents predictions or estimations pertaining to the output variables. In this instance, the ANN endeavors to predict the status of “Cybersecurity Regulations,” “Citizen Participation,” and the “Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act” based on the input variables “Smart City Regulations” and “Data Protection Regulations.” The precise nature of these predictions and the manner in which they are derived would rely on the training data, as well as the specific architecture and parameters of the ANN.

Fig. 8
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Linear regression charts to check the error of the ANN formed in this study, cybersecurity regulations, citizen participation, and cybersecurity information sharing act.

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Based on the results depicted in Fig. 8, it is evident that the ANN has demonstrated exceptional accuracy in predicting Cybersecurity Regulations, Citizen Participation, and the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act. The network achieved an impressively low error rate of less than 1% when compared to the target values outlined in Table 1. These results affirm the effectiveness and precision of the neural network in accurately estimating the aforementioned variables.

Protecting citizens’ data privacy in smart cities

Protecting citizens’ data privacy in smart cities is of great importance, as ignoring this issue may lead to the use of smart city tools to control and monitor citizens, violating their privacy. This can indirectly reduce citizens’ trust in these tools and jeopardize their mental well-being. One solution to protect citizens’ data privacy in smart cities is to establish policies and laws related to privacy protection. Many countries have data privacy laws and cybersecurity policies that require companies and government organizations to protect citizens’ personal information. These policies and laws include measures such as privacy protection, data encryption, restricting access to personal and sensitive data, and determining the responsibilities of organizations in the event of privacy violations. In addition, citizens need to be aware of how their personal data is used in smart city tools. Many smart cities provide the ability to check and control access to citizens’ personal data. This means that citizens can determine how their data is used and to whom it is provided. In this way, citizens can actively participate in the process of protecting their personal data in smart cities. As a result, protecting citizens’ data privacy in smart cities can contribute to citizens’ mental well-being, as they can be confident that their personal data is being properly protected and that its misuse and violation of their privacy is prevented.

Table 2 Smart city research literature from 2014 to 2021.
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Table 2shows the citizen participation and co-production in smart cities11, information systems perspectives on smart city advances12, privacy concerns in smart cities13, the evolution of the “city-as-a-platform” concept14, general issues and themes in creating smart cities15, people-centered approaches to smart cities16, conceptualizing smart cities as cyber-physical social systems17, reframing and reimagining smart cities18, developing citizen-centric typologies for smart city services19, the social transition towards inclusive development through smart cities20, and the developments and transformations of smart tourism cities21. This can directly help maintain citizens’ trust in smart city tools and, as a result, contribute to their mental well-being. The creating strong policies and protecting citizens’ data privacy in smart cities can be considered as an effective solution for citizens’ mental well-being in smart cities. Data privacy laws are legal frameworks that regulate the collection, storage, use, and sharing of personal information by companies and organizations.

The importance of data privacy laws for protecting personal information

Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA), which applies to companies that collect, use, or disclose personal information in the course of commercial activities in Canada, requires companies to obtain individuals’ consent before collecting their personal information, to limit their collection and use of the information to what is necessary for the purposes identified, and to protect the information with appropriate security measures. Data privacy laws play a crucial role in protecting individuals’ personal information and ensuring that companies and organizations use it in a responsible and transparent manner. Emerging smart cities in East Asia use advanced technologies to improve the lives of citizens. However, the use of these technologies can inadvertently lead to a violation of citizens’ privacy44,45,46,47. To maintain citizens’ privacy in smart cities, technologies such as data encryption, restricted access to sensitive information, blocking access to personal information, defining organizations’ responsibilities in case of privacy violations, and educating citizens on how personal information is used can be used. In addition, to protect privacy in emerging smart cities, organizations and companies need to implement policies and laws related to privacy protection. These laws may include requirements such as privacy protection, data encryption, restricted access to personal information, and privacy protection in case of violation48,49,50,51. In emerging smart cities in East Asia, another method of protecting information is through the use of blockchain technology. Blockchain, as a technology-based security method, can be used as a solution to protect privacy in smart cities.

Preserving privacy in emerging smart cities

Using blockchain, personal information such as medical records and financial credentials can be securely stored in urban networks and only be available with personal permission. Finally, to protect privacy in smart cities, citizens must also be aware of their rights regarding privacy protection and must be allowed to know how their personal information is used. Organizations and companies can educate citizens on privacy protection and inform them of how they can participate in the process of protecting their privacy. This can lead to greater trust in smart city technologies and improve citizens’ mental and emotional well-being. The privacy protection in emerging smart cities in East Asia is a critical and vital issue that requires privacy protection laws and policies, technical solutions such as encryption and blockchain, and citizen education. Innovative European smart cities use advanced technologies to improve the lives of citizens and optimize urban resources, but at the same time, they may create privacy violations for citizens. To preserve privacy in innovative European smart cities, approaches such as data encryption, restricted access to sensitive information, clarification of organizations’ responsibilities in case of privacy violations, education of citizens on how to use personal information, and the use of security technologies such as blockchain and artificial intelligence are used. One of the important approaches to preserving privacy in innovative European smart cities is the implementation of privacy protection policies and laws. Laws can be defined that specify requirements such as privacy protection, data encryption, restricted access to personal information, and accountability in case of violation. The use of blockchain technology has also been proposed as another approach to preserving privacy in smart cities. Using blockchain, personal information such as medical history and financial credentials can be securely stored in city networks and only be available with personal permission. Artificial intelligence can also be used as an effective method to preserve privacy in innovative European smart cities45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53.

Importance of citizen awareness and empowerment

Using artificial intelligence, algorithms can be designed to identify and remove sensitive information in data. In addition, citizen awareness and education of their rights regarding access to personal information are essential for preserving privacy in innovative European smart cities. Citizens must be aware of how their personal information is used and should be allowed to participate in the process of protecting their privacy. Moreover, mechanisms for requesting and rejecting access to personal information should be designed so that citizens have full control over access to their personal information. Finally, educating citizens on their rights regarding access to personal information is an important part of information protection approaches in innovative European smart cities. Citizens must be taught how to exercise their rights regarding access to personal information and what actions to take in case of violation of their rights. In conclusion, approaches to protecting information in innovative European smart cities include the implementation of privacy protection policies and laws, the use of security technologies such as blockchain and artificial intelligence, access control to information, educating citizens on their rights, and the use of mechanisms for requesting and rejecting access to personal information. Therefore, implementing these approaches in innovative European smart cities can help improve citizen welfare and increase their trust in urban technologies. Citizen awareness is a critical factor in ensuring the protection of personal data and privacy in smart cities. It refers to the level of understanding and knowledge that citizens have about their rights and responsibilities regarding their personal information and how it is used in smart city technologies. In order to create citizen awareness, smart cities must take measures to educate citizens about the types of data that are collected, how that data is used, and what measures are in place to protect their privacy54,55,56,57,58,59. This can be achieved through various means, such as public awareness campaigns, community outreach programs, and educational workshops. One important aspect of citizen awareness is transparency. This requires smart cities to provide easy-to-use tools and mechanisms for citizens to exercise their data rights and to ensure that citizens are aware of these tools and how to use them. The citizen awareness is a crucial element in protecting personal data and privacy in smart cities. By educating citizens about their data rights and how their personal information is used, smart cities can build trust and create a more transparent and accountable relationship with their citizens58,59,60,61,62. The spatial accessibility and health planning in smart city contexts have been the subject of recent scholarly investigation63,64,65,66,67. Studies have employed location-allocation modeling to evaluate the improved spatial accessibility of newly added tertiary hospitals in a Chinese metropolitan area68,69,70,71,72, as well as examining the spatial accessibility of primary healthcare in Sichuan Province. Emerging technologies, such as blockchain and cyber-manufacturing systems, have also been explored for their potential applications and implications within smart city environments73. Researchers have investigated mechanisms for ensuring the sustainability of blockchain storage and the resilience of cyber-manufacturing systems to cascading failures74,75,76. Additionally, the multidimensional nature of smart city regulations and their impact on various aspects of urban life, including citizen rights, security, privacy, sustainability, and spatial accessibility, have been examined.

Promoting citizen awareness and best practices for protecting personal data and privacy

Public awareness campaigns are a crucial tool for educating citizens about the benefits and risks of smart city technologies. These campaigns, which can take diverse forms like social media, workshops, and community events, are organized by various stakeholders including governments, nonprofits, and companies. The primary goal is to inform citizens about the potential upsides of smart city innovations, such as improved transportation and energy efficiency, while also highlighting the risks associated with personal data collection and use. These risks include privacy violations, identity theft, and unauthorized data sharing. Beyond just educating, these campaigns also play a key role in building trust and credibility between smart city authorities and citizens. By demonstrating transparency and accountability, they can foster a sense of citizen ownership and participation in smart city development. This is vital, as public awareness and engagement are essential for balancing the benefits of innovation with the need to protect personal data and privacy. These campaigns are an effective means of promoting informed, responsible smart city progress that serves the interests of both authorities and citizens.

Conclusion

Regular reviews and updates ensure the plan remains relevant to evolving security risks. A security strategy encompasses comprehensive measures, including security controls, policies, and procedures, to safeguard information systems and data. Risk management plays a crucial role in identifying and mitigating security risks, while security awareness training educates individuals on best practices and increases awareness of potential threats. Implementing a robust security strategy, along with ongoing training and updates, enables organizations to effectively manage security incidents and safeguard sensitive information. The establishment of regulations pertaining to smart cities and data protection can have profound implications for cybersecurity, citizen engagement, and the governance of cybersecurity information sharing. These regulations have the potential to generate multiple positive outcomes. Firstly, the implementation of smart city regulations can lead to the establishment of cybersecurity standards, thereby bolstering the overall security of city systems and data. Secondly, regulations focusing on data protection can safeguard the privacy rights of citizens and mitigate the risks associated with the misuse of personal information. Thirdly, the assurance of citizens’ data and information protection can foster public trust and stimulate active involvement in urban affairs. Additionally, regulatory frameworks can facilitate the exchange of security information among diverse municipal institutions and entities, thereby fostering collaboration and enhancing cybersecurity efforts on a broader scale. Furthermore, the enactment of laws governing the sharing of cybersecurity information can delineate responsibilities and penalties related to breaches in cybersecurity and data protection, thereby incentivizing compliance among individuals and organizations. Ultimately, the implementation of these regulations can transform smart cities into secure and intelligent environments that promote productivity and enhance the well-being of their inhabitants. The present study demonstrates the potential of ANN in modeling the regulatory framework for smart cities, balancing technological innovation and citizen rights protection. However, several limitations and considerations for future research warrant attention. First, the investigation primarily relied on reputable literature and secondary sources, rather than primary empirical data, and subsequent studies could incorporate real-world data to enhance the model’s accuracy and relevance. Second, the ANN model focused on a limited set of input and output variables, and future work could explore a more comprehensive set of factors, such as environmental regulations and emerging technologies, to provide a holistic understanding of the complex regulatory ecosystem. Third, this primarily conceptual study should involve the actual implementation and testing of the model in real-world smart city settings, allowing for iterative refinement and validation. Additionally, the generalizability of the findings may be constrained by the specific geographic and cultural contexts examined, and expanding the scope to include diverse regions could yield valuable insights. Finally, the long-term sustainability and adaptability of the proposed regulatory framework should be further investigated, as smart city technologies and citizen needs are likely to evolve rapidly, requiring ongoing monitoring, evaluation, and adjustment to ensure its continued relevance and effectiveness.