Introduction

In the era of the experience economy, tourism has become an important means for individuals to pursue emotional fulfillment and physical–mental well-being. Compared to traditional sightseeing tourism, sports tourism offers deeper experiential value through its unique characteristics of bodily participation and immersive environments. As a form of tourism that integrates fitness, recreation, and entertainment, sports tourism is gaining increasing popularity among the general public1.

In recent years, research on sports tourism has diversified, covering macro-level topics such as industrial development, economic impact, and destination management2,3. At the same time, tourists’ behaviors and experiences in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic have also attracted scholarly attention4. In particular, tourists’ psychological experiences—especially the concept of flow experience, characterized by deep immersion and enjoyment—have been recognized as a key driver of successful sports tourism5,6. Existing studies primarily focus on the direct impact of specific sports activities, such as skiing and hiking, on flow states, highlighting elements like physical challenge and concentration7,8. However, few have approached flow experience from a holistic tourism perspective that integrates both environmental atmosphere and behavioral interaction.

To address this gap, this study introduces the concept of the sports tourism field, drawing on Kurt Lewin’s field theory and building on the classification framework proposed by Xie and colleagues9. It is defined as an immersive experiential context shaped by the interplay of natural environment, cultural ambiance, facility services, and tourist behavior. Specifically, it comprises two dimensions: the aura field, formed by environmental elements, and the behavior field, characterized by tourists’ interactions with the environment and others. Based on this framework, a path model of “tourism field – tourism involvement – flow experience” is developed, with personality traits introduced as a moderating variable, to systematically explore the mechanisms underlying tourists’ deep experiences in sports tourism.

This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the experiential process in sports tourism and provides theoretical support for optimizing destination design and enhancing tourist satisfaction.

Literature review and research hypotheses

The direct role of the sports tourism field on flow experience

Grounded in field theory, the tourism field provides both the situational context and stimulus conditions for tourist experiences. Stimuli originating from the physical and social environment influence tourists’ psychological states and create conditions conducive to deep engagement9. This study conceptualizes the sports tourism field as comprising two interrelated dimensions: the aura field and the behavior field. This dual-structure classification is also supported by prior research. For instance, Hosany and Gilbert10 emphasized that tourist experiences stem both from emotional responses to destination settings and from participation in activities.

The aura field refers to the overall atmosphere perceived by tourists during sports tourism, shaped by external environmental factors such as natural landscapes, cultural features, and facility services. It emphasizes a static, immersive perceptual context. In contrast, the behavior field involves dynamic interactions that occur within this context, including human–environment interaction (e.g., hiking, skiing), interpersonal interaction (e.g., communication with guides or other tourists), and human–object interaction (e.g., using sports equipment or purchasing souvenirs). These two dimensions reflect the environmental and behavioral aspects of the tourism experience, jointly forming the foundation of tourists’ physical and psychological engagement and influencing the generation of flow experience.

The aura field promotes emotional and cognitive immersion by creating an environment aligned with tourists’ expectations and goals, thereby facilitating entry into a state of flow. Previous studies11,12,13 have shown that positive environmental cues—such as natural scenery, cultural ambiance, and service quality—enhance tourists’ emotional states and experiential satisfaction. Meanwhile, the behavior field emphasizes the active, participatory dimension of tourism. Physical activity, social interaction, and consumption behaviors help focus attention and deepen engagement, which are key antecedents of flow. For instance, exercising, taking photos, or purchasing sports products reflect embodied engagement and can stimulate positive emotions14,15. This suggests that the frequency and intensity of interactive behaviors in sports tourism are positively associated with tourists’ enjoyment, concentration, and psychological absorption.

In sum, both the environmental context (aura field) and interactive processes (behavior field) serve as critical pathways for inducing flow in sports tourism. Based on this reasoning, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1a: Sports tourism aura field positively influences tourists’ flow experience.

H1b: Sports tourism behavior field positively influences tourists’ flow experience.

The mediating role of tourism involvement

Tourism involvement refers to the degree of tourists’ cognitive association, emotional investment, and behavioral participation during tourism activities. Early on, Zaichkowsky16 defined involvement as “the degree to which individuals perceive a product as personally relevant to their needs, interests, and values.” Building on this, Havitz and Dimanche17 adapted the concept to the tourism context, characterizing it as the combined expression of tourists’ motivations, psychological arousal, and behavioral engagement. Subsequent studies have expanded this conceptualization by framing tourism involvement as a multidimensional construct that encompasses emotional attachment, arousal, and observable participation behaviors (e.g., taking photos, exploring, and interacting), emphasizing the interconnection of cognition, emotion, and behavior within the tourism experience. According to leisure and consumer behavior theories, when tourists perceive that the attributes of a tourism activity align with their personal needs, goals, or values, they are more likely to develop a sense of identification, thereby enhancing their cognitive and emotional involvement and progressing toward deeper experiential states18.

The sports tourism field—comprising the aura field and behavior field—provides essential stimuli that foster tourism involvement. For instance, visually appealing natural landscapes and high-quality service facilities (aura field) can evoke emotional resonance in tourists, while interactions with the environment, other individuals, and physical objects (behavior field) promote deeper physical and psychological engagement. These elements collectively enhance the level of involvement.

Empirical studies indicate that higher levels of involvement enable tourists to focus attention, stimulate intrinsic motivation, and elicit positive emotions—core elements that facilitate the emergence of flow experience19. For example, highly involved surfers or hikers are more likely to enter states of immersion and enjoyment20. Therefore, tourism involvement functions as a key psychological mechanism that mediates the relationship between external stimuli from the tourism field and the formation of flow experience. Based on the above analysis, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H2a: Tourism involvement mediates between the sports tourism aura field and the flow experience;

H2b: Tourism involvement mediates between the sports tourism behavior field and the mind flow experience.

The moderating role of personality traits

Personality traits refer to relatively stable patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that differentiate individuals in their interactions with the environment. The Five-Factor Model—comprising extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and neuroticism—is a widely accepted framework in psychology and has been frequently applied in the study of tourist behavior21.

Previous research has demonstrated that personality traits significantly influence how tourists perceive, interpret, and respond to tourism environments22. Flow experience, as a psychological state characterized by deep immersion and positive emotions, is shaped not only by external conditions (e.g., destination attributes or activity type) but also by internal individual differences23. Tourists with different personality profiles may experience varying degrees of flow24,25. Individuals with high levels of extraversion, openness, and emotional stability are more likely to focus attention, actively participate, and derive pleasure from the environment, thereby facilitating flow. In contrast, those with high neuroticism are more susceptible to anxiety, which can disrupt sustained attention and hinder the experience of flow26,27.

Karasakal and Albayrak found that tourists with high extraversion are more sensitive to destination attributes (e.g., natural landscapes, service facilities), and their level of participation enhances the impact of environmental stimuli on flow28. Similarly, Cheng et al. observed that in hiking tourism, tourists with high leisure involvement and high openness experienced significantly stronger flow, indicating an interaction effect between personality and involvement29. These findings suggest that personality traits influence both emotional states and behavioral tendencies in tourism, thereby shaping overall tourist experience30,31,32.

Based on this reasoning, the present study posits that personality traits moderate the relationship between the sports tourism field (including both the aura field and behavior field) and tourists’ flow experience. That is, under the same environmental conditions, tourists with different personality traits may exhibit varying levels of experiential outcomes. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3a: Personality traits play a moderating role in the influence of sports tourism aura fields on the flow experience;

H3b: Personality traits play a moderating role in the influence of sports tourism behavior field on the flow experience.

Hypotheses and conceptual model

Based on the theoretical framework established in the preceding sections, this study proposes a conceptual model to explain how the sports tourism field influences tourists’ flow experience. In this model, the sports tourism field—including both the aura field and the behavior field—is treated as the independent variable, tourism involvement as the mediating variable, and personality traits as the moderating variable.

The model posits that both the aura field and behavior field have direct effects on tourists’ flow experience (H1a, H1b). Tourism involvement serves as a mediating mechanism that transforms environmental and interactive stimuli into a process of psychological engagement (H2a, H2b). In addition, personality traits are proposed to moderate these relationships (H3a, H3b), such that tourists with different personality profiles may experience varying degrees of flow under the same environmental or interactive conditions.

This model integrates environmental, behavioral, and psychological dimensions to systematically explain the formation of flow experience in the context of sports tourism. The research framework and hypothesized relationships are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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Theoretical model.

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Methods

Participants and procedure

To ensure the representativeness and validity of the survey results, this study was conducted at several nationally recognized sports tourism demonstration sites in China, including Beijing Olympic Park, Zhangjiakou Wanlong Ski Resort, and Mount Emei Scenic Area in Leshan City, Sichuan Province. These sites were selected due to their abundance of sports tourism resources, well-developed infrastructure, high-quality service facilities, and strong visibility, making them ideal locations to capture the current dynamics of sports tourism in China. Data collection was carried out using an intercept survey method. Trained interviewers were stationed at strategic locations within each site and instructed to approach passersby and ask whether they were tourists. Only individuals who identified themselves as tourists and who had either completed or were nearing the end of their trip were invited to participate. Upon confirming their eligibility, participants were asked to complete a self-administered questionnaire. Prior to participation, all respondents were informed of the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their involvement, and assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. For participants under 18 years old (n = 3), written informed consent was additionally obtained from their legal guardians, and the procedure was explained to ensure guardians fully understood the study’s objectives and their rights to withdraw participation at any time. These minors were only included after confirming their voluntary willingness and guardian approval, with all data anonymized to protect privacy.

A mixed-mode survey strategy was employed to enhance accessibility and response rates. Paper-based questionnaires were distributed on-site in areas with high tourist footfall, while QR codes were also provided for participants who preferred to complete the survey online. Researchers were present throughout the process to assist participants if needed and to collect completed questionnaires directly. In addition to quantitative data collection, researchers briefly observed tourists’ behaviors, physical activity participation, and social interactions to obtain supplementary qualitative insights. A subset of participants also provided immediate feedback on their sports tourism experience, which was recorded to enrich the dataset.

This study confirms that all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations and that informed consent was obtained from all participants. This study did not involve any clinical intervention, did not involve harm to participants, did not involve sensitive personal information, and had no commercial interests. Then, this study was exempt from Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval in accordance with the ‘Ethical Review Methods for Life Sciences and Medical Research Involving Humans’ issued by the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed, and 454 valid responses were obtained, yielding a valid response rate of 90.8%. As shown in Table 1, among the respondents, 259 (57.05%) were male, 189 (41.63%) were aged between 18 and 26, 252 (55.51%) held a college degree, and 174 (38.33%) reported a monthly income between CNY 4,001 and 7,000. Additionally, the majority (60.57%) indicated that it was their first time participating in sports tourism at the surveyed demonstration sites..

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the samples (N = 454).
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Instruments

Sports tourism field

Based on field theory and drawing on the work of Xie9 and Xu33, this study conceptualizes the tourism field as comprising two distinct but interrelated components: the sports tourism aura field and the sports tourism behavior field. The aura field is operationalized through three dimensions—natural features, cultural (humanistic) characteristics, and facilities and services—while the behavior field is measured through human–environment interaction, interpersonal interaction, and human–object interaction. Each of the six dimensions is assessed using two items, resulting in a total of 12 measurement items. All items were rated using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.841 for the aura field and 0.854 for the behavior field, indicating good internal consistency reliability.

Tourism involvement

The measurement of tourism involvement in this study was adapted from the multidimensional scale developed by Havitz and Dimanche17, which originally included five dimensions: attraction, centrality, self-expression, social bonding, and risk probability. For the purposes of this study, only three dimensions—attraction, centrality, and self-expression—were retained, while social bonding and risk probability were excluded.

This modification was based on two main considerations. First, previous studies have suggested that social bonding and risk perception are less relevant in short-term or structured tourism contexts such as sports tourism34,35, where tourists typically travel individually or in small groups, with limited emphasis on sustained social connections. Second, perceived risk is generally not a primary driver of involvement in professionally organized, low-risk sports tourism settings36. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the tourism involvement scale was 0.860, indicating good internal consistency reliability.

Flow experience

The measurement of flow experience in this study was based on the Flow State Scale (FSS) developed by Jackson and Eklund37, which is widely used to assess flow states in sport and physical activity. The original FSS consists of 36 items representing nine dimensions of flow experience, as conceptualized by Csikszentmihalyi38. These include clear goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration, action-awareness merging, sense of control, loss of self-consciousness, transformation of time, autotelic experience, and balance between challenge and skill.

However, previous studies have demonstrated that abbreviated versions of the FSS can maintain acceptable psychometric properties while reducing response burden, especially in applied contexts such as leisure, tourism, and exercise psychology39,40. In line with this, and based on both theoretical relevance and practical considerations, the present study adopted a shortened version of the FSS, focusing on three core dimensions: concentration of attention, intrinsic motivation, and sense of control. These dimensions have been consistently identified as central to the flow experience across various domains41.

Six items were selected to represent the three dimensions (two items per dimension), following a review of prior research and pretest item analysis. All items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The adapted scale demonstrated good internal consistency in the current sample, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.825.

Personality traits

Personality traits in this study were measured using a shortened version of the Big Five Inventory (BFI), which is one of the most widely accepted frameworks in psychology for assessing individual differences in personality. The Big Five model includes five key dimensions: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and neuroticism. These traits reflect relatively stable patterns of cognition, emotion, and behavior, and are frequently used to explain individual differences in tourism behavior and experience42,43.

Considering the need for scale brevity and empirical focus, this study employed the 10-item short version of the BFI—comprising two representative items for each personality dimension selected based on item discrimination and prior literature—which has been validated in tourism and consumer research as an effective and psychometrically sound tool for measuring personality traits44. Respondents rated each item on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the current study, the scale showed excellent internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.907.

Control variables

Flow experience is a complex psychological state influenced by various factors during tourism. In addition to the core explanatory variables examined in this study, it is necessary to account for other potential influences that may confound the results. Therefore, several demographic and socio-economic characteristics—including gender, age, education level, and monthly income—were included as control variables in the analysis.

Analysis

The data for this study were processed and analyzed using AMOS 24.0 and the PROCESS macro 3.4 for SPSS developed by Hayes. First, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias. The unrotated exploratory factor analysis indicated that the first factor accounted for 37.82% of the total variance, which is below the critical threshold of 40%, suggesting that common method bias was not a serious concern. Subsequently, demographic analysis, reliability testing, and regression analysis were conducted using SPSS. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed with AMOS 24.0 to assess the measurement and structural models. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships among variables. To test the mediating and moderating effects, we employed the bootstrapping method via the PROCESS macro. Finally, simple slope plots were generated to visualize the interaction effects of moderating variables on specific paths in a more intuitive and interpretable way.

Results

Test of reliability and validity

To ensure that each construct was consistent with our theoretical expectations, this study followed the internal consistency assessment procedures recommended by Kishton and Widaman45, and conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS. As shown in Table 2, the composite reliability (CR) values for the five core constructs ranged from 0.758 to 0.885, and the average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.511 to 0.607. According to the criteria proposed by Chin46, CR values above 0.70 and AVE values above 0.50 indicate acceptable levels of reliability and convergent validity. Therefore, all constructs in this study demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties.

Table 2 Validity and reliability tests of the questionnaires.
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In addition, we assessed the overall model fit using standard indices. The goodness-of-fit results showed that GFI, AGFI, CFI, NFI, and IFI were all above 0.90, and RMSEA = 0.034 (Table 3). Based on the criteria outlined by Wu47, these results indicate that the structural equation model exhibits a good fit to the data, further supporting the reliability of the measurement model.

Table 3 Model fit indices.
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Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main study variables

Table 4 presents the results of the descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis for the main study variables. The mean values ranged from 2.94 to 3.08, and the standard deviations ranged from 0.537 to 0.592, indicating moderate levels and acceptable variability. All variables were significantly and positively correlated with one another, providing preliminary support for the hypothesized relationships proposed in this study.

Table 4 Descriptive statistics and correlations among primary variables.
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The mediation model analysis

As shown in Tables 5 and 6, the sports tourism aura field had a significant total effect on flow experience (β = 0.664, p < 0.001), as well as a significant direct effect (β = 0.484, p < 0.001), supporting H1a. In addition, the aura field significantly predicted tourism involvement (β = 0.500, p < 0.001), and tourism involvement significantly predicted flow experience (β = 0.359, p < 0.001). The indirect effect of the aura field on flow experience via tourism involvement was also significant (β = 0.180, p < 0.01), indicating a partial mediation, thus supporting H2a.

Table 5 Regression analysis of the mediation model (sports tourism aura field).
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Table 6 Bootstrapping results of the mediation model (sports tourism aura field).
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Tables 7 and 8 present the results for the sports tourism behavior field. The behavior field had a significant total effect (β = 0.683, p < 0.001) and direct effect (β = 0.532, p < 0.001) on flow experience, confirming H1b. Furthermore, the behavior field positively influenced tourism involvement (β = 0.526, p < 0.001), and tourism involvement again significantly predicted flow experience (β = 0.287, p < 0.001). The indirect effect was also significant (β = 0.151, p < 0.001), indicating that tourism involvement partially mediates the relationship between the behavior field and flow experience, supporting H2b.

Table 7 Regression analysis of the mediation model (sports tourism behavior field).
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Table 8 Bootstrapping results of the mediation model (sports tourism behavior field).
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The moderating model analysis

The moderating effects of personality traits were tested using interaction terms between the independent variables and the moderator. As shown in Table 9, the interaction between the sports tourism aura field and personality traits significantly predicted flow experience (β = 0.116, p < 0.001), indicating that personality traits moderate the relationship between the aura field and flow experience. Thus, H3a is supported.

Table 9 Regression analysis of the moderation model (sports tourism aura field).
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Similarly, as shown in Table 10, the interaction between the sports tourism behavior field and personality traits also had a significant positive effect on flow experience (β = 0.102, p < 0.001), suggesting that personality traits moderate the relationship between the behavior field and flow experience. Therefore, H3b is also supported.

Table 10 Regression analysis of the moderation model (sports tourism behavior field).
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To further illustrate the moderating role of personality traits, a simple slope analysis was conducted using values one standard deviation above and below the mean of personality traits, following Preacher et al.48. The interaction plots are presented in Figs. 2 and 3.

Fig. 2
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Interaction between the sports tourism aura field and personality traits.

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Fig. 3
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Interaction between the sports tourism behavior field and personality traits.

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As shown in Fig. 2, when personality traits were high, the positive effect of the sports tourism aura field on flow experience was significantly stronger. In contrast, when personality traits were low, the effect was relatively weak. This suggests that individuals with higher personality trait scores are more susceptible to immersive emotional experiences in response to environmental cues such as natural scenery, cultural atmosphere, and service quality, supporting H3a.

Similarly, Fig. 3 illustrates the moderating effect of personality traits on the relationship between the sports tourism behavior field and flow experience. The positive relationship was notably stronger for individuals with high personality traits than for those with low personality traits. This indicates that tourists with certain personality dispositions—such as higher extraversion, openness, or conscientiousness—are more likely to experience flow when actively engaging with the environment, people, and objects during tourism activities, thereby supporting H3b.

Discussion

The direct effect of sports tourism field

Previous studies have demonstrated that various environmental attributes of a destination—such as natural landscapes, cultural atmosphere, and service infrastructure—can significantly influence tourists’ flow experience28,49. Building upon this foundation, the present study emphasizes the concept of the sports tourism aura field, which encompasses natural, cultural, and service-related elements as perceived by tourists during sports tourism activities. These elements collectively create an immersive experiential context that facilitates the emergence of flow.

Our findings suggest that sports tourism is not merely a form of physical exercise and leisure, but a composite experience in which tourism-related environmental cues play an essential role. Tourists’ multisensory perceptions—including visual, auditory, and olfactory impressions—are integral to the sports tourism process. We argue that the sports tourism field should be conceptualized as a holistic structure composed of complex objective elements. Tourists make value judgments based on this overall perception, and when the tourism environment aligns with their expectations, needs, and goals, they are more likely to experience flow.

In addition to environmental features, social interactions are integral to the tourism experience and have been shown to promote positive emotions among tourists50. In this study, we conceptualized tourists’ interactive behaviors within the tourism field across three dimensions: interaction with the environment, interaction with other people, and interaction with objects. Specifically, activities such as taking photos, recording videos, and engaging in fitness or leisure routines reflect interaction with the environment; communication with fellow tourists, service staff, or managers reflects interpersonal interaction; and the purchase or use of sports-related products represents object-based interaction.

Our findings indicate that the frequency and diversity of interactive behaviors within the sports tourism context significantly enhance the likelihood of generating positive emotional experiences. This extends previous research by highlighting the multi-dimensional behavioral basis of flow experience in sports tourism settings and reinforces the importance of incorporating both environmental and interactive components in experience-based tourism studies.

The mediating role of tourism involvement

Tourism involvement reflects the extent of tourists’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement with a destination or activity. In the context of sports tourism, natural scenery and geographical features visually stimulate tourists, enhancing their psychological immersion. Well-developed facilities and services further support their engagement by offering convenience. Activities such as taking photos, interacting with others, and consuming local goods reflect tourists’ active participation, which promotes immersion and facilitates memorable experiences51.

The aura field shapes tourists’ perceptions and stimulates their interest, while the behavior field reinforces their participation and deepens their involvement. When tourists feel a strong sense of identification with the activity, emotional resonance with the experience increases the likelihood of entering a flow state20.

High levels of involvement in sports tourism, especially physical and interactive participation—such as hiking, adventure sports, or engaging with local culture—can stimulate a sense of challenge and achievement, both key components of flow experience29. When tourists are consistently challenged and able to meet those challenges, they are more likely to enter a deep immersive state, giving rise to flow.

The moderating role of personality traits

This study finds that tourists’ ability to enter a flow state during sports tourism is significantly influenced by their personality traits. Specifically, those with high levels of openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness—or low levels of neuroticism—are more likely to experience deep engagement and psychological immersion, enhancing the impact of the sports tourism field on flow, consistent with prior research22.

Such traits promote curiosity, social interaction, and emotional stability, enabling tourists to respond more positively to environmental stimuli and participate more fully in tourism activities. These individuals are often more adaptable, goal-oriented, and receptive to the aesthetic and social elements of sports tourism, which fosters greater involvement and flow.

Interestingly, our findings reveal that even individuals with lower levels of overall personality traits (e.g., low extraversion or openness) still exhibit variation in flow experience when exposed to high levels of sports tourism aura and behavior fields. This indicates that personality traits are a key factor in determining whether individuals can attain a flow experience, as personality shapes the way people perceive and interpret their surroundings. However, even in the absence of strong personality predispositions, a well-designed sports tourism aura field and active interactive behaviors can still facilitate flow.

In sum, personality traits not only moderate the strength of the relationship between the sports tourism field and flow experience, but also influence how flow is achieved—either through environmental immersion or behavioral participation.

Theoretical contributions

This study offers several important theoretical contributions to the field of sports tourism research:

  • First, by introducing the concept of the sports tourism field, the study provides a novel analytical framework that integrates both environmental (aura field) and behavioral (behavior field) dimensions. While previous research has often focused on isolated factors such as destination image or specific activity attributes, this study conceptualizes the tourism experience as a field-based dynamic system, rooted in Lewin’s field theory and extended to the embodied and interactive nature of sports tourism.

  • Second, the study bridges environmental psychology and flow theory by revealing how immersive environmental cues and interactive behaviors jointly influence the formation of flow experience. This dual-path model extends prior flow research that mostly centered on individual traits or activity characteristics, offering a more situated and contextualized understanding of how flow is experienced in tourism contexts.

  • Third, this study contributes to the literature on tourism involvement by identifying its mediating role between the sports tourism field and flow experience. This highlights the importance of tourists’ psychological engagement in transforming objective stimuli into subjective experiential states, which enriches our understanding of how meaning is constructed during tourism participation.

  • Finally, by incorporating personality traits as a moderator, the study responds to calls for greater attention to individual differences in tourism experience research. The finding that interactive behavior can compensate for lower personality responsiveness also introduces a compensatory mechanism in flow generation, which is a meaningful contribution to both flow theory and practical tourist segmentation strategies.

Practical implications

This study offers several practical implications for the development of sports tourism. The findings not only provide actionable recommendations for destination managers, policymakers, and tourism organizers but also offer useful insights for tourists aiming to enhance their own travel experiences.

First, the concept of the sports tourism aura field refers to the physical and environmental attributes of a destination that stimulate tourists’ sensory perceptions, including sight, sound, and touch. A visually appealing natural environment can help visitors relax, reduce stress, and achieve a sense of physical and mental satisfaction. To that end, destination managers should: (1) improve the ecological landscape and enhance environmental aesthetics; (2) integrate local sports culture into spatial design, signage, and activity themes; (3) upgrade and maintain tourism infrastructure such as sports equipment rental points, rest areas, and activity guidance platforms; (4) provide specialized training for staff to increase visitor engagement and satisfaction.

Second, for policymakers, the results suggest the need for institutional support to foster active participation in sports tourism. Specifically, it is recommended to: (1) introduce policies that encourage the integration of sports and tourism as a means to promote public health and well-being; (2) establish quality standards or certification systems for sports tourism destinations; (3) promote active lifestyle programs that combine fitness, nature, and cultural heritage.

Third, our findings highlight that tourists’ interactive behaviors play a critical role in enhancing flow experience. As a form of tourism involving high physical and mental engagement, sports tourism naturally encourages immersion through bodily participation. Tourism organizers and designers should therefore: (1) offer tiered activity options catering to different skill levels and involvement (e.g., leisure hiking, trail running, high-intensity workouts); (2) introduce interactive technologies such as AR/VR-based sports experiences or smart fitness devices; (3) organize regular events such as marathons, team games, or group challenges to foster interpersonal and environmental engagement; (4) create immersive zones like sports museums or cultural exhibits to enhance human-object interactions.

Finally, the study reveals the moderating role of personality traits in the relationship between the tourism field and flow experience. This underscores the importance of tailoring experiences to individual differences. On the one hand, tourists should learn to self-regulate, maintain a positive mindset, and proactively engage with their surroundings to derive joy from the experience. On the other hand, destination managers should design inclusive experiences. For extroverted tourists, consider offering socially engaging and team-based activities that tap into their need for expression and stimulation. For introverted tourists, provide more serene and private environments, such as yoga, tai chi, Qigong, nature walks, or solo fitness programs, which are conducive to entering a flow state in a quiet, low-pressure setting.

Limitations and suggestions

This study has several limitations that provide directions for future research. First, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits our understanding of the dynamic changes in tourists’ flow experiences over time. Flow is a transient and state-dependent psychological experience that may vary throughout different stages of a trip. Future studies could adopt longitudinal or experience sampling methods to capture the temporal fluctuations and better understand how flow evolves during a tourism experience. Second, although this study focused on tourism involvement and personality traits as explanatory variables, flow experience may be influenced by additional individual or situational factors—such as motivation, emotional regulation, cultural background, or even group dynamics. Future research could incorporate a broader range of variables to build a more comprehensive explanatory model of flow in sports tourism. Third, this study did not differentiate the types of sports tourism experiences, such as adventure-oriented, leisure-based, or culturally immersive tourism. Since these categories may elicit distinct behavioral patterns and psychological responses, future research should consider classifying and comparing different types of sports tourism to identify their unique impacts on flow experience. Finally, as the survey data were entirely collected from sports tourism destinations within China, cultural and contextual factors specific to the Chinese tourism environment may influence the generalizability of the findings. Therefore, future research is encouraged to conduct cross-cultural or cross-regional comparative studies—especially in diverse sociocultural contexts—to further validate and extend the theoretical model.

Conclusion

In this study, we examined how the sports tourism field influences tourists’ flow experience, highlighting the mediating role of tourism involvement and the moderating role of personality traits. Our findings reveal that both the aura field and behavior field significantly predict flow experience, with tourism involvement acting as a partial mediator. Additionally, personality traits enhance or compensate the effect of tourism field variables on flow. These results offer theoretical insights and practical implications for optimizing sports tourism experiences and personalizing destination strategies.