Introduction

As the educational landscape has significantly changed over the years, schools increasingly rely on teachers. In the context of Malaysia, the education system is characterized by rapid reforms aimed at enhancing the quality of education and producing a skilled workforce. However, teachers face several challenges, including limited resources and increasing administrative burdens (Chan et al. 2024a, 2024b). These pressures are further intensified by the expectations of various stakeholders, such as parents, school management, and the Ministry of Education, who demand higher academic performance and holistic development of students (Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025, 2012; Joseph, 2017). Teachers can no longer rigidly adhere to prescribed roles; they must go beyond their defined duties (Nguyen et al. 2016; Shapira-Lishchinsky and Raftar-Ozery, 2018). Teachers are facing a growing demand from various stakeholders, including society, school management, and the Ministry of Education. Furthermore, teachers, as the primary agents in education reform, are the key human capital of a school. They are under immense pressure to meet high societal standards, often feeling compelled to dedicate extra effort to non-mandatory tasks and duties (Runhaar et al. 2013; Dipaola and Tschannen-Moran, 2001). The cumulative impact of these contributions, both over time and across individuals, significantly influences organizations (Belogolovsky and Somech, 2010; Choong et al. 2020; Choong et al. 2018; EI Majid and Cohen, 2015; Ng et al. 2021). One extensively studied positive organizational behavior concept is organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), which consistently shows that it encourages individuals to willingly assist others (Ababneh and Hackett, 2019; Choong et al. 2023; Khaola and Rambe, 2021). OCB is defined as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988, p. 4). OCB fosters a conducive working atmosphere and contributes to achieving organizational goals. In addressing the challenges of our rapidly changing society with considerable unpredictability, OCB enables teachers to better adapt to dynamic situations (Van Der Vegt et al. 2003).

Individuals’ willingness to engage in OCB is strongly shaped by their perception of organizational justice and trust in their principals, which are both key determinants of OCB (Choong and Ng, 2023; Qiu and Dooley 2022). However, limited research has specifically examined the impact of organizational justice and trust on OCB among teachers (Choong et al. 2018; 2020). Organizational justice refers to teachers’ perception of fairness within their school environment, including fairness in decision-making, resource distribution, and interpersonal interactions. These perceptions significantly affect teachers’ job satisfaction, commitment, and willingness to exceed formal duties (Burns and Dipaola, 2013; Choong et al. 2024a). We propose that fair and impartial organizational practices help convey appreciation to staff members. When teachers feel valued, they are more likely to reciprocate with supportive behaviors, such as engaging in OCB.

Trust, on the other hand, is defined as “a person being willing to be vulnerable to another based on the confidence that the other is benevolent, honest, open, reliable, and competent” (Tschannen-Moran, 2004, p 17). From the principals’ perspective, trust refers to teachers’ confidence that their principal will keep promises and act in their best interests (Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Trust in school leadership is essential for fostering collaboration and cooperation among teachers. In an environment built on trust, teachers are more inclined to engage in OCB as they work together towards shared goals.

While numerous studies have affirmed the positive relationship between organizational justice and OCB (Alazmi and Alenezi, 2023; Choong et al. 2020; Patras et al. 2020), the mediating role of trust in principals in this relationship remains underexplored. Trust is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in fostering OCB, yet there is a lack of empirical research examining how trust in school leadership mediates the link between organizational justice and OCB among teachers. This gap highlights the need for further investigation to deepen our understanding of how organizational justice relates to teacher behavior, especially through the trust they developed in their principals. We propose that teachers’ perception of organizational justice alone may not be sufficient to prompt them to engage in OCB unless they also trust their immediate superior or school principal. According to social exchange theory (SET) (Blau, 1964), workplace relationships are built on reciprocal exchanges of resources and benefits. When teachers perceive fairness and develop trust in their principal, they feel obligated to reciprocate by going beyond their formal job duties (Cohen and Keren, 2010; Choong et al. 2023). This reciprocity creates a mutual exchange, where teachers, in response to fair treatment and trust, engage in behaviors that benefit the organization, such as helping colleagues or taking on additional responsibilities (Ibrahim and El Zaatari, 2020). In essence, SET explains that when teachers trust their leader and perceive justice, they are more likely to exhibit OCB, as they feel a sense of loyalty and obligation to contribute beyond their regular tasks (Qiu et al. 2019).

We further argue that the extent to which teachers who perceive justice and trust their principal would exhibit OCB effectively in the workplace is contingent upon their level of self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy can be defined as “the teacher’s belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998, p. 233). Although many studies have examined the direct links between organizational justice, trust in leadership, and OCB (Burns and Dipaola, 2013; Lee et al. 2023; Somech and Ohayon, 2020), few have explored how self-efficacy plays a moderating role in these relationships. Most research views self-efficacy as a personal trait that affects individual performance (Samfira and Paloş, 2021; Shakeel et al. 2022). However, its impact on how trust in leadership leads to OCB is still unclear. This gap is essential because self-efficacy can shape teachers’ willingness to engage in behaviors that benefit the organization, especially when they trust their principals. Teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to support others and display OCB, ultimately improving school performance (Bottery, 2004; Choong et al. 2023). Social exchange theory (SET) suggests that people engage in mutual exchanges of resources and benefits based on trust and fairness within their relationships. In the context of this study, self-efficacy plays a critical role in moderating these exchanges. For example, teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to convert their trust in school leadership into OCB because they believe in their ability to make meaningful contributions. In contrast, those with low self-efficacy may hesitate to engage in OCB, even when they perceive fairness because they doubt their effectiveness in influencing the workplace. This indicates that self-efficacy can strengthen or weaken the relationship between trust and OCB, as well as the impact of perceived organizational justice on OCB (Qiu and Dooley, 2022). Essentially, employees with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in behaviors that go beyond their formal roles when they feel trusted and treated fairly. In contrast, those with lower self-efficacy may not respond similarly to these perceptions.

Based on the above arguments, this study has a threefold aim. First, we intend to scrutinize the mediating effect of trust in principals on the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Second, we aim to investigate the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Third, we aim to test the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between trust in principals and OCB. The insights from this study are expected to contribute both theoretically by expanding the existing knowledge base and practically for stakeholders, including teachers, school management, and the Ministry of Education. The structure of the paper is as follows: (1) introduction of the paper, (2) literature review, (3) research methodology, (4) result reporting, (5) discussion and implications, and (6) limitations, future research recommendations, and conclusion.

Research Questions

Three research questions are derived to comprehensively understand the complex relationships between organizational justice, trust in principals, self-efficacy, and OCB. These questions are designed to expand the theoretical understanding of these constructs while offering practical insights for school management and educational policymakers.

  1. 1.

    How does trust in principals mediate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB?

  2. 2.

    How does self-efficacy moderate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB?

  3. 3.

    How does self-efficacy moderate the relationship between trust in principals and OCB?

Literature review

Theoretical background

The social exchange theory (SET) serves as the foundation to support the proposed research model. This theory defines the relationship between an individual and an organization as a form of exchange where the quality of the relationship is established on the principle of reciprocity (Coyle‐Shapiro and Kessler, 2003). Essentially, SET suggests that individuals tend to behave in ways they perceive as appropriately reciprocated, depending on how the organization has treated them (Cohen and Eyal, 2015). In the context of our study, we posit that employees who perceive organizational justice are more likely to trust their leaders (principals). This trust, in turn, fosters a reciprocity of positive behaviors, including OCB. Therefore, trust is an effective mediator in explaining how perceived fairness within the organization leads to desirable positive employee behaviors.

Wang et al. (2019) contended that individuals engage in exchanges of resources based on the expectation of mutual benefit. Choong and Ng (2023) elucidated that individuals with high self-efficacy may be more willing to engage in OCB when they trust their superiors because they believe their contributions will be reciprocated and they possess the skills and capabilities to make a positive impact. Conversely, individuals who perceive fairness and trust in their superiors may not necessarily be motivated to engage in citizenship behavior if they perceive their efficacy level as low. Thus, self-efficacy could moderate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB, as well as trust and OCB.

Organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior

Organizational justice is defined as the general perception of teachers toward the fairness of treatment received within a school (Burns and Dipaola, 2013; Choong et al. 2020; 2024b; Patras et al. 2020). It promotes positive work outcomes and serves as the foundation for the accomplishment of organizational effectiveness (Jehanzeb and Mohanty, 2020; Lambert, 2003; Rahman and Karim, 2022). In the context of schools, organizational justice can be understood as teachers’ overall perception of the fairness of treatment within the school environment (Burns and Dipaola, 2013).

Numerous previous studies have demonstrated a positive link between organizational justice and OCB (Burns and Dipaola, 2013; Cohen and Eyal, 2015; Donglong et al. 2020). When employees perceive fair treatment in their work environment, they are more likely to reciprocate by engaging in OCB (Choong et al. 2017; Somech and Ohayon, 2020; Wong et al. 2006). Conversely, if teachers perceive unfair treatment by the management, they are more likely to feel a sense of injustice, which can discourage them from participating in OCB. This aligns with the principles of SET, which suggests that when employees are treated fairly and respectfully, they are more inclined to go the extra mile by assisting colleagues and dedicating additional time to guide students. These behaviors contribute positively to the overall workplace. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Organizational justice is positively related to organizational citizenship behavior.

Mediating effect of trust in principals

Trust is critical in ensuring good working relationships (Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Studies in different contexts generally support trust as a valuable resource that improves organizational functioning. For instance, trust in the leader was found to be a mediator between ethical leadership and safety compliance (Enwereuzor et al. 2020). It is also a source for employee work engagement (Baquero, 2023; Islam et al. 2024), task performance, and OCB (Legood et al. 2020).

From an educational standpoint, trust in principals is rooted in the belief that the principal will keep their promises and advocate for the interests of the teaching staff. (Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Goddard and his colleagues added that trustworthiness can effectively reduce academic disadvantages (Goddard et al. 2009). In the school milieu, high levels of trust contribute to positive school outcomes. These include improved collaboration among teachers in decision-making (Scarborough, 2005), effective communication within the school (Bektaş et al. 2022; Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, 1998), overall school effectiveness (Tschannen-Moran, 2004; Karacabey et al. 2022), the creation of a positive school climate (Liang et al. 2020; Tschannen-Moran, 2009), and enhanced work performance among teachers (Khan, 2023).

Prior researchers have statistically confirmed and revealed that organizational justice positively enhances trust in principals (Alazmi and Alenezi, 2023; Patras et al. 2020). For instance, employees’ trust in their leaders will likely improve when two employees who perform equally receive the same rewards and incentives. Several studies postulated that trust in principals is the precursor of teachers’ motivation to exhibit OCB in their workplace (Choong and Ng, 2023; Lee et al. 2023). Conversely, a school’s principal who does not demonstrate concern for the teachers will discourage teachers from performing OCB. Based on the principles of SET, employees will develop trust in their immediate supervisor if they are fairly treated in the organization. In turn, they will reciprocate by actively performing OCB.

Although numerous studies have affirmed the positive relationship between organizational justice and OCB (Alazmi and Alenezi, 2023; Choong et al. 2020; Patras et al. 2020), the mediating role of trust in principals on this relationship remains underexplored. Despite the growing recognition of trust as a critical factor in fostering OCB, there is still a notable lack of empirical research examining how trust in school leadership mediates the link between organizational justice and OCB. This gap highlights the need for further investigation to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms through which the relationship between organizational justice and teacher behavior operates in schools.

Based on the above discussion, we argue that trust in principals serves as a mediator in the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. As contended by Hoy and Tarter (2004) and Weinstein et al. (2020), both justice and trust are inextricably related to one another. However, trust should precede organizational justice, as an organization with a fair and just system may not necessarily lead to high trust among teachers toward their leaders. Without trust in principals, teachers will not engage in OCB even though there is a fair and just system. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis.

H2: Organizational justice is positively related to trust in principals.

H3: Trust in principals is positively related to organizational citizenship behavior.

H4: The relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior is significantly mediated by trust in principals.

Moderating effect of self-efficacy

Ma et al. (2021) assert that teacher self-efficacy is important for grasping the motivations behind teachers’ actions. Self-efficacy enables teachers to better cope with changes in education reform (Gordon et al. 2023) and enhance their willingness to contribute beyond their core responsibilities (Choong and Ng, 2024c).

We contend that perceived organizational justice stimulates more initiatives to perform OCB among teachers, especially when they possess a high level of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is generally recognized as an important personal resource that boosts an individual performance and ability to withstand adversity (Barbaranelli et al. 2019). Self-efficacious individuals tend to believe in their capability to achieve goals. Thus, perceived organizational justice will likely drive their motivation to perform discretionary behavior and contribute positively to the organizations. Conversely, even when teachers perceive justice, their commitment to OCB may still decline, particularly for those who lack confidence in their ability to help others solve complex issues. Therefore, we posit that self-efficacy can significantly moderate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.

Similarly, we argue that teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy, who trust their principals, are more likely to engage in OCB. These OCBs may include providing informal mentoring, participating in civic engagement, offering suggestions for process improvement, and assisting colleagues. However, as Choong et al. (2023) explained, even if teachers trust their principals, they may not necessarily engage in OCB if they lack confidence in supporting or guiding others effectively. Research by De Castella et al. (2013) has also shown that individuals with low self-efficacy often lack motivation and are driven by a fear of failure, discouraging them from extending help to those in need.

Given these arguments, there is still limited research exploring the moderating effect of self-efficacy on these relationships. While previous studies have extensively explored the direct relationships between organizational justice, trust in leadership, and OCB (Alazmi and Alenezi, 2023; Burns and Dipaola, 2013; Lee et al. 2023; Patras et al. 2020; Somech and Ohayon, 2020), the potential role of self-efficacy as a moderator in this context has been largely overlooked. Most research has focused on how self-efficacy relates to individual performance (Samfira and Paloş, 2021; Shakeel et al. 2022), but its role in shaping how trust in leadership translates into extra-role behaviors like OCB has not been fully investigated. This oversight is significant because self-efficacy can determine the extent to which teachers are willing and able to engage in behaviors that benefit the organization, particularly when trust in their principals is high. Therefore, we propose that self-efficacy plays a significant moderating role in the relationship between trust in principals and OCB.

H5: The relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior is significantly moderated by self-efficacy, such that this relationship is stronger when self-efficacy is high.

H6: The relationship between trust in principals and organizational citizenship behavior is significantly moderated by self-efficacy, such that this relationship is strengthened when self-efficacy is high.

Proposed research model

Based on the preceding literature review, the research model is presented in Fig. 1. First, we examine the direct relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Second, we test the mediating effect of trust in principals on the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Third, we also investigate the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between trust in principals and OCB and organizational justice and OCB.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Proposed research model.

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Research method

Research procedure and sample

Before designing the research method, ethical approval was obtained from the university’s ethical review committee. We employed a quantitative research method using a cross-sectional study design. The study focused on full-time teachers in Malaysia as the working population. Quota sampling was utilized for sample selection across the nation, with a total of 20 schools chosen, four from each region of Malaysia—southern, northern, central, east coast, and east Malaysia. Permission was obtained from each school management before initiating fieldwork. Five research assistants were recruited and trained to conduct the fieldwork, and a token of appreciation was offered to participating teachers.

Questionnaires were distributed to 25 teachers in each school, resulting in a total of 500 questionnaires handed out from March 2023 to April 2023. However, only 472 teachers returned their questionnaires to research assistants. Five incomplete questionnaires were discarded, resulting in a response rate of 93.4%. The sample comprised 286 (61%) male teachers and 181 (39%) female teachers. Further details about the sample profile can be found in Table 1.

Table 1 Summary of respondents’ characteristics.
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Research instrument

A self-administered questionnaire was employed to collect primary data for this study. All measurement items were adapted from past studies, and these adapted scales have been well-validated and widely used in previous research. A five-point Likert scale was utilized to measure the adapted items. The self-administered questionnaire was designed with a cover page and two sections: the cover page provided an overview of the survey and study, while sections A and B consisted of measurement items for variables such as organizational justice, trust in principals, self-efficacy, and OCB.

Organizational justice

It is a multidimensional construct with three salient dimensions, including procedural justice, distributive justice, and interactional justice (Colquitt, 2001; Greenberg, 1993). The adapted measurement was developed and constructed by different scholars for each dimension. For instance, seven items for procedural justice were validated by Thibaut and Walker (1975) and Leventhal (1980). A sample item is, “I am able to express my views and feelings during those procedures.” Distributive justice was measured with four items by Leventhal (1980), and a sample item is, “My outcome reflects the effort I have put into my work.” Interactional justice is measured with nine items by Bies and Moag (1986) and Shapiro et al. (1994), with a sample item being, “The principal has treated me with dignity.” In this study, organizational justice was examined as a higher-order construct. The inter-consistency for organizational justice is very good, with a score of 0.94.

Trust in principals

An eight-item scale developed by Hoy and Tschnannen-Moran (2003) was used to measure trust in the principal. The sample items include “I have faith in the integrity of my school principal” and “I trust my school principal.” The inter-consistency for trust in the principal is good, with a score of 0.93.

Teacher self-efficacy

We adapted Gibson and Dembo’s (1984) 16-item scale to measure teacher self-efficacy. It consists of two major dimensions: personal teaching efficacy with nine items and general teaching efficacy with seven items. Sample items include “When my students’ grades improve, it is usually because I have found more effective teaching approaches” for personal teaching efficacy and “If students are not disciplined at home, they are less likely to be disciplined” for general teaching efficacy. The Cronbach’s alpha score for this scale is very good, with a score of 0.93.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior. A single dimension of OCB was measured using a 15-item scale by Dipaola and Tschannen-Moran (2001). As contended by DiPaola and Hoy (2005), OCB in the school context should be measured with a single bipolar construct that comprises both the altruism and generalized compliance dimensional constructs of Smith et al. (1983). Sample items include “I help students during my free time” and “I volunteer to help new teachers.” The Cronbach’s alpha score for this scale is good, with a score of 0.92.

Data analysis

Firstly, IBM-SPSS software (version 25) was employed to conduct preliminary analyses such as inter-correlational tests and the Harman single-factor test. Secondly, a measurement model analysis was performed to confirm the construct validity and reliability of the proposed research model, which followed the Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach using Smart PLS software version 4. Lastly, the structural model was examined by testing the proposed hypotheses and the overall research model.

The popularity of PLS-SEM is rising among social science researchers (Hair and Alamer, 2022). As compared to covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM), PLS-SEM is not restricted by the data normality assumption, demonstrates considerable resilience to skewed data, and emphasizes the model’s predictive ability (Hair and Alamer, 2022). Besides its ability to handle both large and smaller-scale sample sizes, PLS-SEM can be used for a complex model featuring numerous indicators, latent variables, and structural relationships, providing flexibility to the researchers (Dash and Paul, 2021; Hair et al. 2019).

Preliminary analysis

Table 2 displays the inter-correlation scores between constructs. Several control variables, including age group, organizational tenure, and marital status, were added to examine the correlation analysis, accounting for potential confounding factors that may relate to the study’s results. Marinova et al. (2019) argued that married employees tend to exhibit a greater propensity for engaging in OCB compared to those who are not married. Furthermore, factors like age and organizational tenure emerge as pivotal determinants of an individual’s efficacy levels (Caesens and Stinglhamber, 2014). Employees with longer tenures in an organization and those who are more advanced in age tend to accumulate a wealth of work experiences and greater skills, ultimately leading to higher levels of efficacy.

Table 2 Mean, standard deviation, and inter-correlations.
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As revealed in Table 2, other control variables were not significantly correlated with OCB except for age. For the normality analysis, the kurtosis and skewness scores for each variable fell within the thresholds of +2 and −2 (Hair et al. 2022). However, both the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk tests indicated non-significance for all variables (p > 0.05), suggesting that the data are not normally distributed. Despite this, we acknowledge that normality is not a strict requirement for PLS-SEM, which can accommodate non-normal data (Hair et al. 2022).

A Harman single-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias in the collected dataset. Podsakoff et al. (2003) suggested that no single factor should account for more than 50% of the total variance; otherwise, common method bias may be an issue in the dataset. According to the Harman single-factor test results, none of the factors accounted for more than 50% of the total variance. The first factor only accounted for 41.66% of the total variance. Therefore, common method bias is not a major issue in this study.

Since PLS-SEM emphasizes maximizing the explained variance of dependent constructs rather than relying on covariance-based assumptions, the traditional model fit indices that are commonly reported in CB-SEM (like CFI, TLI, RMSEA) are generally not required for PLS-SEM. Nevertheless, we have still tested model fit indices. In our model, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) exceeds the 0.08 threshold, which is unfavorable. Conversely, the exact fit criterion (d_ULS) score is 55.49, which is considered acceptable. Additionally, we computed the Goodness of Fit (GoF) score, which resulted in 0.55. This score is substantial as it exceeds the large GoF threshold of 0.36, as Wetzels et al. (2009) suggested.

Measurement model analysis

The PLS algorithm technique was employed to examine construct validity and reliability (Hair et al. 2019). Table 3 illustrates the factor loadings, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE). Most of the item loadings exceeded the minimum threshold value of 0.70. However, two items from organizational justice, four items from teacher self-efficacy, and three items from OCB were removed due to low factor loadings. Meanwhile, one item from trust in principals, three items from teacher self-efficacy, and three items from OCB with lower factor loadings were retained as the AVE score for these constructs was well above the cutoff value of 0.50.

Table 3 Convergent validity result.
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The AVE scores for the constructs ranged from 0.55 (OCB) to 0.93 (self-efficacy). The composite reliability score for each construct exceeded the minimum recommended score of 0.70 (Hair et al. 2019). Thus, the proposed model’s convergent validity and reliability are ascertained.

For discriminant validity, a Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) criterion test was conducted. Table 4 shows that none of the HTMT correlation scores is greater than the threshold value of 0.85 (Henseler et al. 2015). Therefore, we affirm that discriminant validity is well achieved.

Table 4 Heterotrait-Monotrait Criterion.
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Structural model analysis

Direct path analysis

To test the model and hypotheses, we utilized a bootstrapping technique with 5000 resamples. Table 5 presents the statistics of the path coefficient (β), t-statistics (t), and significance level (p). The statistical results revealed that organizational justice is positively related to trust in principals (β = 0.71, t = 24.03, p < 0.001) and OCB (β = 0.73, t = 13.59, p < 0.001), thereby supporting hypotheses 1 and 2. We also found that trust in principals is positively related to OCB (β = 0.28, t = 4.94, p < 0.001). Thus, hypothesis 3 is supported by the data.

Table 5 Structural model results.
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Mediation path analysis

Table 5 also presents the results of the mediating path. As hypothesized, the relationship between organizational justice and OCB is significantly mediated by trust in principals (β = 0.20, t = 4.79, p < 0.001). Therefore, hypothesis 4 is well supported by the data. Zhao et al. (2010) suggested that if the direct and indirect paths are both significant, then the mediation is partial. Conversely, if the direct path is not significant and the indirect path is significant, then the mediation is full. Based on the results, organizational justice is positively related to OCB, and trust in principals significantly mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Therefore, we consider this mediation as partial.

Moderation path analysis

In the moderation paths, it is evident that teacher self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between trust in principals and OCB (β = 0.19, t = 3.49, p < 0.001), thereby supporting hypothesis 5. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate that the magnitude of the effect of the relationship between trust in the principal and OCB is stronger when teachers have higher self-efficacy. Conversely, for teachers with lower self-efficacy, it appears that the relationship between trust in the principal and OCB is comparatively weaker.

Fig. 2
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Moderation effect of teacher self-efficacy between trust in principals and organizational citizenship behavior.

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Fig. 3
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Moderation effect of teacher self-efficacy between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior.

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Similarly, we also found that teacher self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB (β = −0.13, t = 2.52, p < 0.05). Nevertheless, a negative moderation effect occurs despite a significant interaction term. Hence, hypothesis 6 is not fully supported by the data. Further examination of the simple slope graph (see Fig. 3) showed that the relationship between organizational justice and OCB exhibits greater strength when teachers perceive lower self-efficacy. Conversely, in the case of teachers with higher self-efficacy, the relationship appears to be comparatively weaker.

Discussion

This study revealed several important findings. Firstly, we found that organizational justice positively relates to trust in principals and OCB. This finding is consistent with several past empirical studies (e.g., Alazmi and Alenezi, 2023; Cohen and Eyal, 2015; Donglong et al. 2020). The elements of organizational justice include fair distribution of resources, transparent practices, consistency in policy implementation, equal opportunities, and respectful interpersonal interactions. As revealed by our result, a high perception of organizational justice is critical in promoting teachers’ trust in school principals and improving their inclination to engage in OCB.

Our findings showed that organizational justice is the most substantial driving factor for teachers’ voluntary participation in activities beyond their formal job requirements, including mentoring colleagues, volunteering for additional tasks, or participating in curriculum development. As such, teachers’ involvement in OCB fosters a more collaborative and thriving school environment. In the same vein, Donglong et al. (2020) also asserted that treating teachers with dignity, respect, and empathy is essential so that they are more willing to contribute to the school by demonstrating OCB.

Secondly, our findings also provide empirical evidence that trust in principals is positively related to OCB., which aligns with the previous studies (Choong and Ng, 2023; Lee et al. 2023). This underscores the importance of fostering trust in school leadership to enhance OCB among teachers, which promotes a positive workplace culture and improves performance (Choong and Ng, 2023). Establishing a foundation of trust creates a psychologically safe environment for teachers, enabling them to feel confident and secure in their work role, knowing that their principals prioritize their best interests. This sense of security encourages teachers to take on additional tasks and support their colleagues, thereby increasing their engagement in OCB. Conversely, teachers’ motivation to engage in OCB will diminish when they do not trust their principals and perceive that their contributions are being undervalued.

Thirdly, this study not only establishes a direct relationship between organizational justice and OCB but also confirms the indirect effect of trust in principals on this relationship. As Cohen and Eyal (2015) indicated, individuals who perceive fair treatment from their immediate superiors are more likely to have greater trust in their leaders. Similarly, Choong et al. (2018) emphasized that embedding fair and equitable practices into school routines helps cultivate a culture of trust. Moreover, previous research has consistently shown that trust in principals often leads to increased OCB among employees (Lee et al. 2023). Teachers are more assured that their contributions will be valued and recognized in a trusting relationship. Our results further confirmed that perceived organizational justice is essential in shaping teachers’ trust in principals. Such trust in school leadership, in turn, promotes a positive exchange relationship, prompting teachers to feel a shared responsibility for the school’s success by performing beyond their formal job duties. Therefore, trust in principals functions as a crucial intermediary, elucidating the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.

Our study also highlights that self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. The relationship between organizational justice and OCB is stronger for those with lower levels of self-efficacy than those with higher self-efficacy. Such unpredictable results may be because teachers with greater self-efficacy are more self-centered and wish to outperform others. Thus, they may not fully commit to performing OCB by assisting others. Several authors (e.g., Vancouver et al. 2001, 2014) revealed that individuals with high self-efficacy may experience low motivation due to complacency as they believe they are close to reaching their goals. High self-efficacy individuals who are overconfident and perceive that they can accomplish a task with fewer resources (e.g., time and effort) may harm their overall performance (Beck and Schmidt, 2018; Moores and Chang, 2009). Based on this reasoning, teachers are less likely to exert much effort in performing extra-role behavior despite perceived fairness in the workplace.

Lastly, this study uncovers that self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between trust in principals and OCB. Specifically, the connection between trust in principals and OCB is more pronounced among individuals with higher self-efficacy than those with lower self-efficacy. As noted, teachers show greater trust in their principals when they uphold fairness and justice in the workplace. De Castella et al. (2013) indicated that employees will exhibit OCB, particularly if they have the skills and confidence required for such actions. In contrast, individuals may refrain from performing OCB if they lack the necessary skills and confidence to assist others, even in the presence of trust in principals. Trust in leaders is useful in enhancing interpersonal ties that encourage teachers to reciprocate by performing OCB more actively (Legood et al. 2020). Meanwhile, our study further supports that high self-efficacy is a critical personal resource that can strengthen such a social exchange process.

Theoretical implications

This study has offered two theoretical implications. Firstly, our study provides a deeper understanding of the social exchange mechanisms by revealing that trust in principals is a complementary variable for the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. Both organizational justice and trust in principals are crucial for cultivating the culture of OCB among teachers. Promoting fair practices is effective in nurturing trust, leading to a principal-teacher dynamic that emphasizes mutual respect and cooperation, which enhances teachers’ willingness to exert extra effort in the school setting. Hence, the results further reinforce the notion of SET as individuals feel more obliged to reciprocate with desirable behaviors (OCB) when they receive favorable treatment from the organization and experience a positive interpersonal relationship (i.e., trust in principals). Though organizational justice and trust are related concepts within the workplace context, the two concepts are not interchangeable (Colquitt et al. 2013). While trust can be shaped by perceptions of organizational justice, it encompasses more than just fairness (Xu et al. 2016). Employees may trust their organization even if they perceive some aspects of organizational justice to be lacking. Conversely, employees may perceive high levels of organizational justice but still have certain reservations about trusting their leaders.

Secondly, our study is one of the few studies that have confirmed the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between organizational justice and OCB, as well as between trust in principals and OCB. As such, our study enriches the existing knowledge of SET, showing how social exchanges operate when self-efficacy serves as a boundary condition between the study variables. In this respect, our finding revealed the complexity of personal traits as high self-efficacy did not always boost the desirable reciprocal exchange between favorable organizational practice and OCB (also known as an extra-role performance), which provides another interesting addition to the existing literature.

Specifically, our finding demonstrated that high self-efficacy weakened the positive link between organizational justice and OCB instead of the reverse. Salanova et al. (2012) pointed out that the relationship of high self-efficacy to performance varies based on activities performed in different settings. For instance, high self-efficacy improves students’ academic and innovative performance but not employees’ safety performance. Overconfidence, unrealistic goals, and underestimation of risks are among the reasons for the undesirable outcomes of high self-efficacy (Bachrach et al. 2023; Salanova et al. 2012). The present results may indicate that despite being generally beneficial, high self-efficacy can potentially create a sense of self-reliance that reduces the effect of external motivators like organizational justice on OCB. In contrast, employees with low self-efficacy tend to doubt their ability to achieve targets of task performance; perceived fairness may provide psychological security that induces extra-role behavior as this can be a way to gain better recognition and support from others in the organization.

On the other hand, our study also provides a deeper understanding of the fact that self-efficacy is particularly effective in boosting the relationship between teachers’ trust in principals and OCB. High self-efficacy is a valuable personal resource that can raise teachers’ ability to reciprocate by engaging in OCB when they trust their school leader.

Practical implications

Our study delves into the practical implications of organizational justice, trust in principals, and self-efficacy, offering essential insights for educational institutions. Notably, our research highlights the pivotal role of organizational justice in fostering trust in principals and OCB. Considering these compelling findings, we strongly recommend that the management of the schools establish clear and comprehensive policies and procedures to uphold organizational justice. Schools must prioritize transparent communication regarding changes and decisions tied to these policies and procedures to fortify trust and diminish uncertainty among teachers. By ensuring that teachers are consistently informed, schools can foster an environment of transparency, laying the foundation for trust to flourish.

Drawing inspiration from Choong et al. (2020), we recommend incorporating effective survey and feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms provide a platform for teachers to contribute valuable insights and feedback on system improvements. By actively involving teachers in this process, educational institutions can enhance the fairness of their systems, ensuring that they benefit everyone involved. When implemented thoughtfully, these feedback channels are pivotal in cultivating a culture of continuous improvement and fairness within educational institutions. Consequently, this contributes to increased trust in principals and cultivates a culture prioritizing stakeholders’ collective well-being and growth.

Next, our study showed that it is imperative to enhance trust levels in principals, as it is a critical motivating factor that can encourage OCB among teachers. As such, school principals must take proactive approaches to improve teachers’ trust in their leadership. The efforts that can be taken include actively involving teachers in decision-making processes and seeking their opinions before making significant decisions. This inclusive approach empowers teachers, signaling that their input is valued and fostering trust in their principals (Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2015). Moreover, principals should commit themselves to continuous leadership development to regularly upgrade their skills, knowledge, and competencies. This commitment creates an environment where teachers not only feel supported and respected but also confident in the leadership of their principals. The role of a good leader extends beyond competence; active listening and showing respect to teachers are fundamental components. Schroeder et al. (2019) aptly note that gaining trust requires treating others with dignity and respecting others with truthfulness. Choong et al. (2020) further stressed that the lack of mutual respect is a critical barrier to developing trust in the workplace.

Finally, and most importantly, self-efficacy emerges as a significant moderator in our proposed research model. Bandura (1997) contends that an individual’s self-efficacy can be fortified by enhancing four key factors: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and affective states. For example, school principals should express their appreciation for teachers’ successes and accomplishments (Choong et al. 2020). Such recognition gives teachers a sense of acknowledgment and strengthens their overall efficacy. Moreover, implementing a mentoring program, wherein senior or experienced teachers act as mentors for inexperienced or younger teachers (mentees), can significantly impact confidence levels. This arrangement allows less experienced teachers to perform better and glean insights from mentors with more extensive experience. Thirdly, principals should assume the role of influencers or persuaders for teachers. Regular positive feedback fosters persuasiveness, particularly for teachers with lower competency levels. To be effective persuaders, principals should improve their credibility, trustworthiness, and expertise (Bandura, 1986).

Lastly, cultivating a positive emotional state among teachers is crucial for enhancing their belief in their ability to deliver impactful performances, contributing to a sense of self-efficacy. To improve teachers’ emotional well-being, a series of mindfulness workshops can be arranged, providing them with opportunities to learn how to manage stress and emotions effectively. Meanwhile, an attractive reward allocation can effectively encourage highly self-efficacious individuals to continuously demonstrate favorable behavior and performance (Tzur, et al. 2016). Besides, this approach is also useful in minimizing the potential downside of high self-efficacy due to overconfidence or complacency, thus heightening overall performance.

Limitations and future research recommendations

Several limitations and recommendations for improving future research have been identified and discussed. The findings of this study are specific to the context of school teachers in Malaysia. Therefore, similar studies could be conducted in higher education settings, covering the academic staff from both the private and public sectors to broaden the scope and applicability of the current research model.

Next, data collection for this study occurred at a single point in time, limiting our ability to test and confirm cause-and-effect relationships. The design lacks the capacity to establish a distinct temporal sequence of events. For example, the occurrence of organizational justice should precede its relationship with teachers’ trust. Similarly, both organizational justice and trust must be in place before teachers engage in OCB. These variables inherently involve a temporal order, and their simultaneous occurrence is not feasible. Consequently, the study may face challenges in accurately confirming causal relationships due to the inherent constraints of the cross-sectional design. Adopting a longitudinal or time-lagged study design would be beneficial for future studies. These designs allow for examining cause-and-effect relationships over time, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics between variables.

Trust is a complex concept with multiple dimensions, including trust in principals, colleagues, students, and parents (Choong et al. 2023; Smith et al. 2001). In our recommendation for future research, we propose exploring various dimensions of trust. Besides, examining trust across different referents could yield diverse findings, contributing valuable insights to the existing literature. Moreover, such exploration could benefit key stakeholders, including school management, teachers, students, and parents.

While this study evaluated organizational justice as a second-order construct, future research could provide a more comprehensive understanding by examining the specific relationship of each component (e.g., procedural, distributive, and interactional justice) with trust in principals and OCB.

Conclusion

Grounded on social exchange theory, our study provides robust evidence that trust in principals partially mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. That is, perceived organizational justice improves trust in principals, which eventually contributes to more active involvement in OCB among teachers. Additionally, our findings indicate that self-efficacy is a critical moderator in the association between trust in principals and OCB. This study showed that trust-based relationships are vital in inducing OCB among high self-efficacy teachers. Though unexpected, the negative moderating effect of self-efficacy between organizational justice and OCB is valuable to the existing literature. It highlights that fair policies and procedures alone are not strong enough to enhance OCB among high self-efficacy teachers; they rely more on trust in principals.

In sum, this research improves the empirical foundation of OCB and deepens our understanding of the interplay between organizational justice, trust in principals, and self-efficacy within the educational context. These insights emphasize the necessity of enhancing OCB among teachers by focusing on improvements in organizational justice, introducing interventions to enhance teachers’ self-efficacy, and building trust in leadership through employees’ empowerment and participative decision-making.