Introduction

Higher education, as a key pillar, has been given a new role in human capital development amidst the Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 (VRPs, 2022; Alanazi & Benlaria, 2023). By giving the government’s policy prominence to employability and increasing the number of jobs in the private sector, a theme already important for different countries, the Saudi education system has acknowledged the shifting meaning of higher education. The focus is now on ensuring that higher education outcomes align with the labor market’s needs by guiding secondary education toward specialized tracks in line with tertiary education tracks, including the business administration track. The accounting major is one of the destinations of choice for secondary school graduates to pursue their post-secondary education. To accommodate the surge in secondary education graduates, Saudi universities have significantly expanded their offering of accounting programs at both the diploma and bachelor’s levels. Currently, there are 29 public universities and 14 private universities in Saudi Arabia, most of which offer accounting degrees. However, this expansion has led to a remarkable increase in the number of accounting graduates in recent years, which has potentially impacted employability rates and intensified competition within the Saudi labor market.

This challenge is amplified when students express concerns about their ability to compete effectively for positions requiring specific skills and qualifications (Succi & Canovi, 2020; Tandika & Ndijuye, 2022). Accounting students must therefore proactively address the competitive effects on their employability prospects. This trend underscores the growing necessity for accounting graduates to possess not only academic qualifications but also distinctive skills that set them apart in the job market. In response to these challenges, this study aims to explore the employability skills that accounting students perceive as critical for labor market success. Specifically, it investigates the skills students self-report as essential in their curriculum vitae (CVs). Unlike previous studies that predominantly utilized questionnaires and interviews based on pre-identified skill sets determined by researchers (e.g., Dolce et al., 2020; Douglas & Gammie, 2019; Elo et al., 2023; Howcroft, 2017; Kwarteng & Mensah, 2022; Mainga et al., 2022; Webb & Chaffer, 2016), this study adopts a novel approach by using CVs as the primary data source. The use of CVs for such analysis remains largely unexplored. Furthermore, the research focuses on students nearing graduation rather than accounting graduates. Consequently, the following first research question arose: Which employability skills do accounting students believe are important for employers for entry-level positions, as mentioned in their CVs? Additionally, the study attempts to explore students’ level of awareness of these skills and their extent of reliance on them in their CVs as an urgent priority. In doing so, the research contributes to the growing body of literature on accounting students’ employability skill priorities.

Enhancing the employability of accounting graduates is a shared responsibility, involving not only higher education institutions (HEIs) but also students, graduates, and employers. Bridging the gap between acquired skills and the skills required by the labor market necessitates a collaborative effort (Al-Htaybat et al., 2018; Khan, 2018). Students often need to fully tap potential while studying to develop their employability skills by engaging in a variety of student learning opportunities and activities that are part of the higher education experience. To become “employable,” students are required to invest considerable time and effort in skill-building initiatives while at university, such as pre-graduation work experience, participation in internship programs, and engagement in training courses, as well as leveraging the skills embedded within the accounting curriculum. Internship programs, as a form of curricular activity, have been shown to significantly support skill development (Anjum, 2020; Beard, 2007; Beck & Halim, 2008; O’Connor & Bodicoat, 2017). Similarly, training courses and part-time work during studies, even when unrelated to their field of study, may be considered a self-type of improvement in developing employability skills (Häkkinen, 2006; Di Paolo & Matano, 2022; Salamonson et al., 2020; Sanchez-Gelabert et al., 2017).

This proactive engagement of students in skill development activities is critical for shaping the future profile of accountants and ensuring their readiness to meet labor market demands (Tekkol & Demirel, 2018). The question of who bears responsibility for developing employability skills remains a topic of debate. While some argue that this responsibility lies with universities or employers, the role of students themselves is often underexplored. This study seeks to verify the extent to which university students themselves contribute to the development of their employability skills while university. Accordingly, the second objective is to examine the role of these learning opportunities and activities in developing employability skills among accounting students during their studies. Specifically, the study seeks to determine whether differences exist in the importance placed on employability skills by students based on their pre-graduation work experience or internships and their participation in training courses. Thus, the second research question is formulated: Are there differences in the importance of employability skills acquired among accounting students based on their pre-graduation work experience (experienced vs. inexperienced) and participation in training courses (attended vs. not attended)? Understanding this role is crucial, as students’ engagement with such opportunities is likely to shape their perceptions of the relationship between their university activities and their future career prospects.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews the related literature; Section 3 outlines the research methodology; Section 4 presents the findings; Section 5 discusses the findings; and Section 6 concludes with implications and limitations of the research.

Background and literature review

The employability skills

Employability is defined as the relative opportunities that increase an individual’s likelihood of acquiring and retaining a job (Fajaryati et al., 2020; Römgens et al., 2020). These opportunities come through having their discipline-specific knowledge and skills to respond to the contemporary needs of the labor market (Peeters et al., 2019; Sin et al., 2016), with an increasing emphasis on or demand for the latter (Dolce et al., 2020; Tsiligiris & Bowyer, 2021). While knowledge is inherent to education and outside this study’s scope, employability skills classified into soft and hard skills (Ebaid, 2021; Kirstein et al., 2019; Strang, 2022; Twyford & Dean, 2023), play a significant role in employability (Andrews & Higson, 2008; Matsouka & Mihail, 2016). Soft skills are personality traits influencing job performance (teamwork, relationship building/management, work organization, time management, and thinking skills), while hard skills refer to technical proficiencies required for effective job performance (foreign language proficiency, information technology skills (IT), arithmetic, quantitative/computational, humanities) (Strang, 2022; Twyford & Dean, 2023). Research consistently demonstrates that both categories of skills are complementary and critical to individual success in the workplace (Lyu & Liu, 2021; Rainsbury et al., 2002). Employment prospects largely depend on whether individuals’ resources meet employers’ changing requirements (OECD, 2017; Peeters et al., 2019). In its latest employability skills outlook, the World Economic Forum (WEF) published a list of key skills required for the emerging labor market of 2025, these skills are grouped into four main categories: problem-solving (e.g., analytical thinking, innovation, complex problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, originality, initiative, reasoning, and ideation); self-management (e.g., active learning, resilience, stress tolerance, and flexibility); working with people (e.g., leadership and social influence); and technology use and development (e.g., technology use, monitoring and control, design, and programming) (WEF, 2020).

There is harmony among stakeholders (students, policymakers, academics, professionals, and employers) on the importance of employability skills in enhancing accountants’ employment prospects and elevating the status of the accounting profession (Asonitou, 2019; Banasik & Jubb, 2021). Employers view employability skills, both soft and hard skills, as highly important (Aryanti & Adhariani, 2020; Ebaid, 2021; Haidar & Al-Shorafa, 2023; Ismail et al., 2020; Pang et al., 2019; Tan & Laswad, 2018). Interestingly, some studies reveal that employers prioritize consistently soft skills, particularly those related to teamwork, communication, planning, organizing, and problem-solving (Andrews & Higson, 2008; Arquero et al., 2022; Dolce et al., 2020; Howcroft, 2017; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Lim et al., 2016). In terms of hard skills, IT skills are consistently identified as the most in-demand by employers (Howcroft, 2017).

The ever-changing requirements of the labor market highlight the need for continuous skill acquisition by students to enhance their employability prospects (Gammie et al., 2002; Kenayathulla et al., 2019). Accounting students, for their part, recognize the importance of aligning employability skills with employers’ needs and view these skills as integral to employability (Edeigba, 2022; Elo et al., 2023; Mainga et al., 2022; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Peeters et al., 2019). Recently, more research efforts have been made to explore an understanding of accounting students’ perceptions of skills necessary for enhancing employability (Atanasovski et al., 2018; Arquero et al., 2022; Elo et al., 2023; Kwarteng & Mensah, 2022; Mainga et al., 2022). Findings from these studies reveal that students place significant value on a broad range of employability skills, with a pronounced emphasis on soft skills over hard skills. The most important soft skills identified include teamwork, time management, self-confidence, motivation, self-promotion, problem-solving, active learning, critical thinking, ethical and professional values, and communication skills. While students generally recognize technical expertise as essential for entry-level positions (Elo et al., 2023; Arquero et al., 2022), some studies suggest they perceive IT skills, including software proficiency, as less critical for employment (Kwarteng & Mensah, 2022; Mainga et al., 2022; Atanasovski et al., 2018). In the Saudi context, Al Mallak et al. (2020) found that accounting students prioritize ethical skills, followed by IT and organizational skills, while ranking communication and personal skills as less important. In a similar context, Griffin and Coelhoso (2019) conducted a study with business students in the United Arab Emirates, which revealed that while students valued communication, teamwork, and time management skills during internships, they lacked awareness of critical thinking, self-management, intercultural competence, and initiative skills. Foreign language proficiency, particularly in English and French, is also highly valued by both students and employers as an additional language of business (Acosta Cárdenas et al., 2019; Haidar & Al-Shorafa, 2023; Oussii & Klibi, 2017). Perspectives from both groups emphasize the importance of oral and written communication skills in foreign languages for successful employment (Acosta Cárdenas et al., 2019; Oussii & Klibi, 2017). However, these studies also highlight that proficiency in foreign languages remains a notable weakness among graduates.

Student learning opportunities and activities: pre-graduation work experience or internship programs, and training courses

Despite the growing attention for employability skills, accounting education often faces criticism for failing to adequately equip students with the skills that employers require (Howcroft, 2017). Researchers have consistently highlighted a gap between the skills accounting students acquire during their studies and those expected by both students themselves and employers (Arquero et al., 2022; Awayiga et al., 2010; Elo et al., 2023; Gammie et al., 2002; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Webb & Chaffer, 2016). This gap is also evident in Saudi Arabia, where studies show a similar discrepancy during the transition from HEIs to the labor market (Alanazi & Benlaria, 2023; Al Mallak et al., 2020). Employers frequently express concerns about the insufficient skill levels exhibited by accounting graduates. While some employers acknowledge that universities have made progress in narrowing this gap, they also recognize their own role in enhancing graduates’ employability (Alsughayer & Alsultan, 2023; Arquero et al., 2022; Sin et al., 2016). This skills gap raises questions about shared responsibility between educational institutions and employers in addressing these challenges. This gap is one of the main motivations behind this study, which contributes to the ongoing effort to reduce this gap in person-environment work-fit and maximize graduate employability.

Although the responsibility for employability has been transferred by governments to HEIs, particularly in the United Kingdom (Cheng et al., 2022), students often perceive HEIs as responsible for enhancing their employment. Over the last two decades, there have been increased pressures on HEIs, including accounting programs, to adapt the curriculum and embed employability skills in the curriculum to meet the ever-changing needs of the contemporary business environment (Awayiga et al., 2010; Carvalho & Almeida, 2022). However, students are increasingly aware that they hold responsibility for their own employability and proactively seek to gain a competitive edge in the labor market (Sin et al., 2016). Universities are urged to ensure that they produce competent graduates with the employability skills needed, while students are motivated to continually develop their skills through engaging in both curricular and extracurricular activities such as internships, work experiences, training courses, workshops, and lectures. This shared responsibility is also a key motivation for this study, as students’ engagement in such activities has been shown to positively affect the development of employability skills, particularly soft skills like teamwork, leadership, communication, problem-solving, interpersonal skills, time management, and adaptability (Mainga et al., 2022; Ribeiro et al., 2023). However, the extent to which these combined factors contribute to directly enhancing student employability skills remains underexplored.

Pre-graduation work experience refers to any form of employment, internships, cooperative education, or practical work exposure undertaken by students before completing their formal education. Internships, as short-term practical workplace experience, provide accounting students with valuable opportunities to develop employability skills (Anjum, 2020; Imjai et al., 2024; Morshed, 2022; To & Lung, 2020) and enhance their awareness of workplace requirements pertinent to employability skills (Rainsbury et al., 2002). Accounting students perceive internship programs as significant for achieving learning outcomes, often prioritizing soft skills over hard skills (Beck & Halim, 2008). From another perspective, a study by Franco-Ángel et al. (2023) shows that both hard and soft skills acquired had a positive impact on the performance of undergraduate students in their internships. Similarly, working while at university can have potential benefits for students in their many employability skills development (Kirstein et al., 2019; Salamonson et al., 2020). However, the effects of combining work and study vary, with studies showing positive, negative, or no impact on academic achievement (Lyne & Paje, 2023; Sanchez-Gelabert et al., 2017; Sinaga, 2018; Tuononen et al., 2024) but have positive effects on labor market insertion, particularly when the work is related to a student’s field of study (Sanchez-Gelabert et al., 2017; Pitan & Muller, 2021).

Student training and development programs are essential to the promotion of employability skills. Romanenko et al. (2024) found that students who participated in on-campus soft skills courses reported significant improvements in their soft skills, which are vital for future employment. Similarly, Emanuel et al. (2021) demonstrated that an online course focusing on soft skills positively influenced the development and assessment of employability skills. Additionally, training courses organized by formal organizations outside of campus also contribute to skill development post-graduation (Schultz, 2022). These findings highlight the importance of diverse training opportunities in equipping students with the skills needed to succeed in the competitive labor market.

Employability skills can also be developed through effective instructional teaching strategies and pedagogical practices (curricular activities) within accounting education (Douglas & Gammie, 2019; Virtanen, Tynjälä (2022)). According to Elo et al. (2023), most accounting students developed most of these skills during their studies, except for emerging technology skills. Recent studies have highlighted the significant contributions of residential experiential learning and work-integrated learning approaches in enhancing employability skills such as communication, problem-solving, leadership, organization and planning, and teamwork and for aligning theory to praxis, which, in turn, significantly enhanced their propensity to obtain subsequent employment (Khampirat et al., 2019; Twyford & Dean, 2023; Jackson et al., 2023).

As previously noted, these activities are essential to increase employability skills training and promotion of employability. Therefore, it is crucial to place greater emphasis on exploring the employability skills most important to students and analyzing their role in developing these skills through such activities. To generate more authentic knowledge and bridge the identified gaps, it is necessary to determine:

  1. 1.

    The skill sets relevant to employment as self-reported by accounting students;

  2. 2.

    Ranking the importance of employability skills by accounting students;

  3. 3.

    Accounting students’ level of awareness of employability skills;

  4. 4.

    Whether there is a statistically significant difference in the importance of accounting students’ employability skills based on the pre-graduation work experience and internship programs mentioned in the CVs and;

  5. 5.

    Whether there is a statistically significant difference in the importance of accounting students’ employability skills based on the training courses attended.

Methodology

Data collection

This study aims to explore accounting students’ employability skills by analyzing self-reported skills through their CVs. It also seeks to investigate whether pre-graduation work experience and participation in training activities, as mentioned in their CVs, contribute to the development of these employability skills. Data were collected through the CVs. Students nearing graduation were asked to prepare a CV as if they were applying for a potential job in their field of specialization—accounting. The reason for choosing this tool study is that the CVs are a form of connection with an employer to present academic and professional information, if any. A CV is a key component of any job application. Furthermore, many studies have reported that information extraction from CVs can be stored as structured data in a database, which can then be utilized in various domains (e.g., Li et al., 2023; Vukadin et al., 2021).

The inclusion criterion for selecting participants was final-year accounting students (as a proxy for graduates) who had completed one of the courses taught in the last semester of the study. Students’ understanding of employability tends to vary based on their years of study (Cheng et al., 2022). Consequently, final-year students are more likely to be preoccupied with employment-related concerns at this stage. Their thoughts are related to employability skills to ensure future employment (Gedye & Beaumont, 2018; Mainga et al., 2022). A total of 171 CVs of fourth-year accounting students were collected over the two years 2022–2023 from a university located in the central region of the Riyadh province of Saudi Arabia. The evaluation focuses on only three primary components of knowledge that form the CV: employability skills, pre-graduation work experience or internship programs, and training courses. Drawing on the literature and the most recent list published by the WEF, a categorized list of employability skills within each of the two main categories: soft skills and hard skills, as a framework for this study, was built. Soft skills are subcategorized into problem-solving (e.g., critical thinking, creativity), self-management (e.g., time management, active learning, stress tolerance), and working with people (e.g., leadership, communication, teamwork) skills. Hard skills are subcategorized into IT competencies (e.g., Microsoft Office, software proficiencies) and foreign language proficiency (e.g., English language). Figure 1 illustrates the employability skills framework used in this study.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Employability skills framework .

Full size image

Data analysis

The qualitative data analysis process is mainly based on data mining, text classification, and text mining. Following the initial classification of the data, it defined a preliminary set of categories and subcategories that corresponded strictly to the literature and the newest list of employability skills for the WEF. The content analysis process relied on classifying well-known words or phrases commonly used to denote skills for each of the two main categories and their respective five subcategories, and, finally, each skill separately. Accordingly, the CV data was organized into the following key sections for analysis: employability skills, pre-graduation work experience, and training activities. The categories established a priori were soft and hard skills, informed by the works of Ebaid (2021), Kirstein et al. (2019), Twyford and Dean (2023), and Strang (2022). Additional key variables included pre-graduation work experience or internship programs and participation in training courses. The pre-graduate work experience category, in turn, was divided into three subcategories based on years of experience: less than one year, 1–2 years, and over two years. Participation in the training courses category, in turn, was classified into two subcategories: the topic of training courses, which was further divided into three minor categories: knowledge, skills, and both; and place attended of training, which was divided on campus, outside campus, and both. Text sections were assigned codes according to these predefined categories. Additionally, descriptive statistics were employed to provide a concise summary of the dataset’s main features. Descriptive statistics are critical for characterizing the sample and offer a foundational understanding essential for effective analysis and interpretation in research.

The characteristics of the study data are summarized in Table 1. Of the skills mentioned, 75% were soft skills (n = 12), while 25% were hard skills (n = 5). Moreover, 63.75% of the students mentioned having work experience, whereas 36.25% did not. In terms of training courses, 71.35% mentioned that they attended training activities, whereas 28.65% did not.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics sample characterization.
Full size table

For testing reliability and validity, Cronbach’s Alpha (α) was used first to test indicators and construct reliability. Secondly, Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance was conducted. In the end, the regression analysis was used to mitigate the effects of subjectivity and improve the reliability of our findings. To address the two questions of this study, First, Average Weighted Means were utilized to describe the relative importance of employability skills based on their frequency in students’ CVs. Skills were ranked according to their mean scores, with higher means indicating greater perceived importance and frequency. Second, Differences between groups were analyzed with T-test/ANOVA.

Findings

Reliability and internal consistency

In this study, the reliability and internal consistency of the data were assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (α). Each CV was coded for the mentioned (1) or not mentioned (0) of these skills. The Cronbach’s alpha of the whole scale of 17 skills was 0.785 (greater than 0.7), as shown in Table 2. This means that the study’s findings on which skills are important for employability are based on a trustworthy and internally consistent set of data.

Table 2 Internal consistency of employability skills in CVs.
Full size table

The importance of the employability skills by students expected to graduate

The analysis here focuses on the first research question: Which employability skills do accounting graduates believe are important for employers for entry-level positions, as mentioned in the CV? The skill sets were first analyzed collectively, followed by an individual skill analysis. Table 3 presents the mean frequencies for ranking the importance of employability skills in the two broad categories. The results reveal that the hard skills set was considered the most important (ranked 1st), followed by the soft skills set (ranked 2nd). These findings indicate that both skill sets are deemed essential by accounting students in Saudi Arabia.

Table 3 Mean frequencies, standard deviation, and rank of employability skills categories' importance.
Full size table

This study also employed mean frequencies of citations to determine which skills students nearing graduation prioritized for increasing their chances of securing a job. Table 4 summarizes the importance of each single skill within the two broad categories in ascending order by mean score, standard deviation, and frequency. The most frequently mentioned skills were computer skills (ranked 1st), Microsoft Office skills (ranked 2nd), and software proficiency skills (ranked 4th), along with English language proficiency (ranked 3rd), all of which are hard skills. Furthermore, the use of computers and Microsoft Office were the most frequently, while Data visualization analysis skills were the least frequently mentioned among all the skills listed. Communication skills (ranked 1st), the ability to work under pressure (ranked 2nd), teamwork skills (ranked 3rd), and time management skills (ranked 4th) were the most emphasized soft skills. In contrast, creativity skills (ranked 11th) and critical thinking (ranked 12th) were ranked the lowest. Among the hard skills, data visualization analysis skills (ranked 5th) received the least attention.

Table 4 Mean frequencies, standard deviations, and ranks of each single skill importance.
Full size table

The variety of student learning opportunities and activities

This analysis is related to the second research question: Are there any differences in the importance given to each employability skill across accounting students for experienced vs. inexperienced and attended training courses vs. non-attended training courses in the CVs? Thus, the analysis addresses whether differences exist in the importance of employability skills across accounting students based on their pre-graduation work experience and training course attendance. Levene’s test confirmed the homogeneity of variance for hard and soft skills between experienced and inexperienced students (p = 0.901 and 0.083, p > 0.05) and between those who attended training courses and those who did not (p = 0.150 and 0.127, p > 0.05). As shown in Table 5, Independent sample t-tests revealed no significant differences in the importance of hard and soft skills between students with and without pre-graduation work experience (t = 1.030, p > 0.05; t = −0.49, p > 0.05, respectively). However, significant differences were found between students who attended training courses and those who did not (t = 3.16, p < 0.05; t = 2.69, p < 0.05, respectively), highlighting the impact of training courses on employability skills development.

Table 5 T-test results for two employability skills categories.
Full size table

The analysis indicates that eight out of the 12 soft skills (communication, ability to work under pressure, time management, organization, negotiation, problem-solving, leadership, and creativity) showed no significant differences between groups with or without pre-graduation work experience or training courses (p > 0.05 for all cases), as shown in Table 6. Similarly, Table 6 shows that there were no significant differences between the groups (p > 0.05) for two of the five hard skills (software proficiency and data visualization). These findings suggest that students generally perceive these skills as important and may have acquired the necessary skills for entry-level jobs in their chosen field of study. Regression analysis revealed no statistically significant effect of pre-graduation work experience on soft skills (unstandardized coefficient = −0.021, p = 0.624) or hard skills (unstandardized coefficient = 0.047, p = 0.304), with confidence intervals for both effects ranging from −0.107 to 0.064 and −0.043 to 0.137, respectively, as shown in Table 7. This implies that work experience alone may not significantly contribute to the development of employability skills. Overall, the results suggest that factors other than work experience may play a more critical role in skill development among students. Moreover, A statistically significant difference was identified in the perceived importance of computer skills (t = 2.194, p < 0.05) and English language proficiency (t = −1.988, p < 0.05) between students with pre-graduation work experience and those without. Students with work experience rated computer skills as more important, suggesting that their practical exposure emphasized the relevance of this skill. Conversely, the negative t-value for English proficiency indicates that students without work experience considered this skill more critical for employability, highlighting its perceived value for career readiness among inexperienced students.

Table 6 T-test results: The mean number of skills mentioned in the CVs for work experience possessed/training attended and non-work experience/training.
Full size table
Table 7 Regression analysis results.
Full size table

The analysis also reveals significant differences in the mean frequency of certain employability skills—teamwork, active learning, adaptability, critical thinking, use of computer skills and Microsoft Office, and English language proficiency—between students who attended training courses and those who did not (see Table 6). This suggests that students who take part in training courses are more likely to recognize and develop these skills, which are essential for entry-level positions. Regression analysis shows that course activity has a significant positive effect on hard skills (B = 0.149, p = 0.002), with each additional course contributing to an increase in these skills. However, no significant impact was observed on soft skills (B = −0.021, p = 0.624). The variance explained by training courses is relatively low for both hard skills (R² = 0.056) and soft skills (R² = 0.041), indicating also that other factors, such as the curriculum, likely play a substantial role in both soft and hard skills development among students. This underscores the potential role of the curriculum in fostering employability skills. Curricular activities are essential for providing foundational knowledge and skills aligned with academic disciplines, while extracurricular activities complement this by enhancing soft skills and offering practical experience. Together, they create a holistic educational experience that prepares students for both academic excellence and professional success.

Additional tests were conducted to analyze the differences in employability skills based on years of work experience, training course topics, and place of training. The objective was also to determine whether there were statistically significant differences in each single skill. The analyses considered only the skills for which the F-value indicated a significant difference in the mean scores. Levene’s test confirmed equal variances across groups, and ANOVA revealed significant differences in specific skills (Tables 8–10). Regarding years of work experience, students with over two years of experience ranked organization and leadership skills significantly higher (F = 3.508, p < 0.05, and F = 4.050, p < 0.05), as shown in Table 8. For training course topics, significant differences were found in computer skills, Microsoft Office skills, English proficiency, and active learning, with students attending skills-based training ranking these skills higher (all p < 0.05) (see Table 9). Additionally, the place of training influenced skill rankings, as students who participated in both on-campus and off-campus training scored higher in use of computer skills, Microsoft Office skills, English proficiency, teamwork, active learning, and adaptability skills (all p < 0.05). The exception was in foreign language skills; students with training courses attended off-campus were ranked significantly different, as shown in Table 10. Off-campus and on-campus training together provided valuable real-world experience that enhanced employability skills.

Table 8 Mean and ranking comparisons in terms of years of experience.
Full size table
Table 9 Mean and ranking comparisons in terms of training course topics.
Full size table
Table 10 Mean and ranking comparisons in terms of place of training attended.
Full size table

Discussion

This study sought to explore the significance of employability skills essential for accounting students to secure future job opportunities in the Saudi labor market. It also examined whether differences existed in the importance of these skills, as mentioned in CVs, based on students’ engagement in curricular and extracurricular activities during their studies. Specifically, the study focused on the role of pre-graduate work experience or internship programs, and participation in training courses in enhancing employability skills.

First, findings showed that accounting students recognize the significance of most employability skills, which were largely consistent with previous research (e.g., Kwarteng & Mensah, 2022; Mainga et al., 2022; Rainsbury et al., 2002). Among the 17 skills identified in CVs as essential, 12 were soft skills and five were hard skills, indicating a comprehensive understanding of the skills emphasized in the literature (Bhatti et al., 2022; Dolce et al., 2020; Tan & Laswad, 2018; Twyford & Dean, 2023) as well as the updated employability skills list by the WAF. These findings highlight that accounting students in this study have sufficiently acquired these skills during their studies. This result aligns with the findings of Elo et al. (2023) and Kwarteng and Mensah (2022), which emphasize that students develop most essential employability skills while at universities. However, contrasting findings from Al Mallak et al. (2020) suggest that students may expect to achieve a slightly lower level of employability skills by the end of their studies. Consequently, a critical measure of success lies in students’ ability to take proactive steps while at university to develop employability skills that align with labor market demands in their respective fields.

Overall, accounting students rated the hard skills set as the most important, followed by the soft skills set, contrasting with prior studies that often ranked the soft skills set as the top priority among students and graduates (e.g., Atanasovski et al., 2018; Douglas & Gammie, 2019; Kwarteng & Mensah, 2022; Rainsbury et al., 2002; Romanenko et al., 2024). Among hard skills, the use of computer skills and Microsoft Office skills were ranked the highest, supporting the findings of Elo et al. (2023) on the significance of IT skills. However, students ranked data visualization skills as less important and did not mention emerging IT skills in their CVs, which shows students’ perceived importance of foundational computer and IT skills such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, and accounting software. It also suggests that accounting students prioritize developing their basic IT skills over advanced digital skills to better cope with the automation of finance and accounting processes, at least for entry-level positions. This prioritization is in line with the findings of a review of accounting professional bodies’ reports on employability skills by Tsiligiris and Bowyer (2021), which exhibited a general consensus that entry-level accountants primarily need proficiency in basic technological tools rather than advanced programming. It also supports arguments in the skills literature emphasizing that the most important skills for graduates in entry-level positions are proficiency in basic technical and technological tools, such as spreadsheets and accounting software (Ismail et al., 2020; Elo et al., 2023). The role of Learning Management Systems (LMS) was crucial during and after the COVID-19 pandemic in facilitating the development of basic IT skills when there was an urgent need for online learning and assessment activities delivery (Haidar, 2022; Ng & Harrison, 2021).

As the analyses indicated, soft skills were considered just as important as hard skills, as reflected by the frequency with which they were mentioned in the CVs. The results of this study show that communication, the ability to work under pressure, teamwork, time management, organization, active learning, negotiation, and adaptability skills were ranked among the most important skills. These findings align to a large extent of the expectations and perceptions of students described in the literature (Elo et al., 2023; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Twyford & Dean, 2023). The most highly valued soft skill was communication, aligning with Carvalho and Almeida (2022) who emphasized that communication is the most valued skill for accountants to meet market demands. In contrast, a recent study on the ranking of soft skills among accounting students in Saudi Arabia found that communication and interpersonal skills were rated as less important (Al Mallak et al., 2020). Problem-solving, creativity, critical thinking, and leadership skills were ranked as the four least important, which is generally consistent with the findings from Ebaid (2021), Mainga et al. (2022), and Succi and Canovi (2020). The relatively low importance attached to these skills may be explained by the fact that some students are not fully aware of the importance of these skills in the labor market while still at university (Macdermott, Ortiz (2017)). In some cases, these skills may not be perceived as immediately necessary, as graduates with minimal skills often hire for entry-level positions. Rebele and St. Pierre (2019) argue that individual accounting courses may not be the ideal venue for instilling certain soft skills, such as leadership and creativity. Our additional analyses showed that students with more years of work experience placed greater importance on leadership and organizational skills compared to those with less experience, suggesting that their importance of these skills becomes evident in the workplace.

Second, the study found no significant difference in each skill set between students with pre-graduate work experience and those without; however, a significant difference was observed between students who participated in training courses and those who did not. Regression analysis indicated that other factors beyond training courses and work experience—such as the curriculum—also play a vital role in enhancing both soft and hard skills. These findings were consistent with prior research emphasizing the combined impact of pre-graduation work experience or internship programs, and training courses, as well as educational practices within curricula on developing employability skills and improving post-graduation job opportunities (Anjum, 2020; Imjai et al., 2024; Jackson et al., 2023; Khampirat et al., 2019; Kirstein et al., 2019; Mainga et al., 2022; Morshed, 2022; Pitan & Muller, 2021; Ribeiro et al., 2023; Salamonson et al., 2020; To & Lung, 2020; Twyford & Dean, 2023). At the level of each skill, the findings showed no statistically significant difference in the importance of most soft skills between students with pre-graduation work experience and those without, nor between those who participated in training courses and those who did not. Overall, this suggests that these skills are important for students to improve their competitiveness in the labor market. Teamwork, active learning, adaptability, and critical thinking skills were exceptional; they were the skills that were rated differently by students – but only by students who attended training courses. Consequently, students who attend training courses are aware of their importance and that training courses play a role in acquiring these skills. Training courses are often dynamic and incorporate group activities, collaborative projects, problem-solving tasks, and active learning methods, all of which enhance adaptability and analytical thinking.

For hard skills, the findings showed a statistically significant difference in the mean frequency of importance—except for software proficiencies and data visualization— between students who participated in training courses and those who did not. These skills were mentioned more frequently in the CVs of students who had attended relevant training courses, whether conducted on or off-campus, as shown in Tables 8, 9. This is also in line with the findings of other research that confirms the critical role of training courses, particularly skills-focused ones, in enhancing employability (Emanuel et al., 2021; Romanenko et al., 2024; Schultz, 2022). In particular, training in English language and computer-related courses significantly improves proficiency in these critical areas. Moreover, the widespread adoption of computer technology in daily life has likely reduced negative perceptions associated with its use. In contrast, there was no statistically significant difference in most hard skills—except for computer skills and English proficiency—between students with pre-graduation work experience and those without. The exceptions for these two skills suggest that students with pre-graduation work experience perceive their learning of languages and computer functions more holistically in the workplace, thus promoting employability in ways that the higher education alone may not provide. While some literature suggests that pre-graduation work experience, as considered one of the employability skills, is ranked relatively low in importance for promoting work readiness in students (Mainga et al., 2022; Pitan & Muller, 2021), the findings of this study indicate that such experience meaningfully contributes to developing employability skills and provides a competitive edge in the workplace. This finding aligns with previous studies that emphasize the value of pre-graduation work experience in enhancing employability (Anjum, 2020; Morshed, 2022; Pitan & Muller, 2021; To & Lung, 2020; Kirstein et al., 2019; Salamonson et al., 2020).

Conclusions, implications, and limitations

This study primarily aimed to explore the employability skills that accounting students nearing graduation perceive as critical for labor market success by analyzing the content of their curriculum vitae (CVs). It further examined whether pre-graduate work experience, participation in internship programs, and engagement in training courses significantly influence the development of these skills. A key strength of this research lies in its innovative approach, employing the analysis of self-reported employability skills from students’ CVs. This method offers unique contextualization, as it reflects the students’ perspectives on the skills they deem essential for workplace readiness. A notable advantage of this approach is that the skills are directly identified by students who are about to graduate, and who are likely to arguably well aware of the skills most needed in the workplace. Research in this field, using CVs as the primary data collection tool, remains largely unexplored. As a result, the findings of this paper are highly significant in the growing body of literature on graduate employability skills and their perceived priorities. The results of the study indicate that students reported most employability skills highlighted in the literature and the latest World Economic Forum (WEF) list, reflecting their awareness of these skills’ importance for workplace readiness. Computer use, Microsoft Office, communication, English language proficiency, ability to work under pressure, teamwork, and time management were the most frequently reported skills listed in their CVs. Additionally, the results show that pre-graduate work experience, participation in internship programs, and engagement in training courses contributed to developing employability skills, highlighting the importance of students actively engaging in their own skill development. This engagement prepares them to face the challenges of an increasingly competitive labor market by integrating both curricular and extracurricular activities. Together, these activities contribute to a well-rounded education, equipping students for both academic and professional success.

Moreover, the analysis highlights that students nearing graduation could benefit from engaging in continuous learning and upskilling to meet immediate employability needs. Three key factors drive this process: (1) self-development through participation in training courses focused on knowledge and skill enhancement; (2) employment opportunities during their studies that provide hands-on experience and skill improvement; and (3) skills acquisition through leveraging the competencies and skills provided by the accounting curriculum. Together, these factors enable students to align their educational experiences with labor market demands, ensuring readiness for their professional futures. This ongoing development serves as a framework for students to understand the connection between their participation in higher education and their broader career prospects. This study opens new avenues for future research, particularly in exploring how the integration of both curricular and extracurricular learning activities—such as internships, pre-graduation work experiences, and training courses—can enhance employability skills development, whether these activities are conducted on or off-campus.

This study provides valuable insights for higher education institutions (HEIs) to refine their strategies for student skill development and enhance graduate employability. By understanding the preferences that shape students’ intentions and how these are reflected in their CVs, HEIs can better align their educational offerings to equip students with the skills necessary for success in the labor market. HEIs could also make greater use of these insights in their curriculum design by aligning both acquired skills through coursework and those learned through practical experiences, such as internships, extracurricular activities, and training programs. This contributes to the ongoing effort to reduce the skills gap between academic preparation and market expectations. Meanwhile, some students may not be intensely knowledgeable of the importance of employability skills; therefore, universities should create opportunities within curricular and extracurricular activities to raise awareness and better position them for employment post-graduation. This study reinforces the notion that HEIs play a utilitarian role in preparing students by equipping them with advanced knowledge, skills, and competencies aligned with labor market demands. It also highlights the importance of collaboration between HEIs and training providers to design and deliver skill-development programs tailored to both students’ needs and market requirements.

Additionally, this study has a certain reference value for employers. Understanding how graduates perceive the priorities of employability skills is crucial for employers in shaping their expectations and aligning workplace practices to better support graduates’ transition into the workforce. Employers could also make greater use of the findings of this study to play a key role in enhancing employability skills and graduates’ readiness through internship programs and through collaborating with universities to design internship programs that reflect current labor market demands, thereby enhancing graduates’ readiness for the workforce.

This study recognizes the limitations of solely relying on CV analysis and acknowledges the potential value of incorporating qualitative methods. Future research could enhance this framework by adopting a mixed-methods approach, combining CV data analysis with interviews or focus groups. This integration would provide a more comprehensive understanding of students’ priorities regarding employability skills and help uncover the contextual factors that influence skill development. Although there is an advantage in being able to identify individual skill sets through self-reported data, there are legitimate concerns about the accuracy and reliability of this information when an individual’s lack of skills in a particular area causes them to overestimate their competence. In one of the previous studies, Arquero et al. (2022) found that students were overconfident about their skills on average. However, our study covered the skills that helped us produce good results. Future research could move beyond self-assessment by measuring actual performance of acquired skills in a real or realistic situation. For instance, assessing students’ skills during internship programs would allow for a more accurate understanding of their true employability skills. While the insights provided are valuable within the study’s specific context, they may not apply to broader or different settings. We recommend that future studies expand these skills to include other universities or countries with similar educational settings to ensure that they can be generalized to accounting students in different settings.