Perspectives

Adaptive intelligence envisions AI that, like animals, learns online, generalizes and adapts quickly. This Perspective reviews biological foundations, progress in AI and brain-inspired strategies for building flexible and adaptive AI algorithms.

In this Perspective, the international PAINDIFF Network makes 13 recommendations for studying sex and gender as variables in preclinical, clinical and translational pain research that are applicable across the spectrum of biomedical and psychosocial research.

Parcellation of the cortex into functionally modular brain areas is foundational to neuroscience. Here, Hayden, Heilbronner and Yoo question the central status of brain areas in neuroscience from the perspectives of neuroanatomy and electrophysiology and propose an alternative approach.

We challenge the traditional views of sensory processing, showing that primary sensory cortex has an adaptive and flexible role that evolves with learning and context, reshaping our understanding of perception, behavior and brain function.

This Perspective discusses the challenges involved in translating optogenetic research into clinical practice, including clinical and pragmatic choices, potential toxicity and immune responses, regulatory issues and ethical considerations.

Sankowski and Prinz propose a classification framework for microglia states that considers the contextual plasticity of microglia. Their multimodal classification aligns a robust terminology with biological function and cellular context.

This paper discusses how experimental and computational studies integrating multimodal data, such as RNA expression, connectivity and neural activity, are advancing our understanding of the architecture, mechanisms and function of cortical circuits.

This article discusses a puzzling issue in brain pathology: why brain-resident microglia are insufficient for protection, and why myeloid cells are needed from the periphery. Several strategies are proposed to enhance their recruitment to the brain.

Individual variability in behavior is influenced by social identities. Here, Dhamala et al. discuss the need to incorporate social identities in neuroimaging studies of behavior and explore how to foster inclusivity in research.

How microglia sculpt brain circuits is not clear. Here, the authors propose that their contribution to synapse removal may occur by severing synapses (culling) or collecting synapses shed off by neurons (scavenging).

The CaMKII holoenzyme was long thought to mediate memory storage via an autophosphorylation reaction that occurs between its subunits at Thr286 (pThr286). This Perspective explains shortcomings of earlier models and provides an updated view.

Task demands are a primary determiner of behavior and neurophysiology. Here the authors discuss how understanding their influence through multitask studies and tests of generalization is the key to articulating novel cognitive neuroscience concepts.

The hypothesis that dopamine reports reward prediction errors has been both influential and controversial. This Perspective characterizes the present state of evidence, indicating where it succeeds and where it falls short. A complete account of dopamine will probably need to move beyond the reward prediction error hypothesis while retaining its core explanatory power.

Recent studies suggest a close interaction between sensory and motor processes across the neocortex. In this Perspective, Rao proposes active predictive coding as a sensory–motor theory that explains the structure of the neocortex as well as some of its diverse computational capabilities.

Nongenetic factors contribute to the onset, progression and severity of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, the authors describe how exposomics, the systematic analysis of environmental factors, can help neuroscientists understand these diseases.

This paper provides recommendations for researchers on responsibly conceptualizing, contextualizing and communicating issues related to race and ethnicity, including examples of important terms and frameworks.

Recent discoveries highlight the skull bone marrow, linked to the CNS via osseous channels, as a key neuroimmune compartment. Here, the authors discuss the anatomy, functions and implications of this immune reservoir on CNS health and disease.

This paper characterizes two distinct philosophies underlying previous work on how Bayesian computations are linked to neural data, highlighting how different theories may be motivated by different tacit assumptions and thereby explain different data.

Despite diversity, equity and inclusion efforts, women remain underrepresented as academic leaders in neuroscience. In this Perspective, Bourke, Spanò and Schuman discuss current European initiatives and propose further actions to support women’s career progression in STEM.

Recent progress in astrocyte biology requires a more cohesive conceptual framework. This Perspective introduces a ‘contextual guidance’ paradigm in which astrocytes are key to adaptive modeling of neural circuits in response to state changes.