Table 4 Multivariate models showing associations between cardiovascular risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in middle-aged adults (age 35–59 years, n = 231).

From: Hemodynamic factors primarily impact on carotid IMT in young adults of African Ancestry in Sub-Saharan Africa

IMT versus	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
Age	0.284 ± 0.064	< 0.0001	0.250 ± 0.070	=0.0004	0.278 ± 0.066	< 0.0001	0.274 ± 0.066	< 0.0001
Sex (male)	0.136 ± 0.072	=0.062	0.134 ± 0.075	=0.076	0.127 ± 0.076	=0.098	0.121 ± 0.075	=0.106
BMI	0.210 ± 0.071	=0.0034	0.208 ± 0.075	=0.0061	0.207 ± 0.072	=0.0044	0.199 ± 0.073	=0.0068
Regular smoking	0.050 ± 0.065	=0.446	0.056 ± 0.074	=0.451	0.047 ± 0.066	=0.481	0.050 ± 0.065	=0.444
Regular alcohol	−0.034 ± 0.065	=0.606	−0.031 ± 0.069	=0.658	−0.035 ± 0.066	=0.595	−0.032 ± 0.065	=0.629
Diabetes mellitus	0.048 ± 0.064	=0.455	—	—	0.046 ± 0.065	=0.478	0.043 ± 0.065	=0.513
Treatment for HT	−0.088 ± 0.066	=0.181	−0.098 ± 0.067	=0.149	−0.089 ± 0.066	=0.177	−0.085 ± 0.066	=0.197
Mean arterial pressure	0.168 ± 0.064	=0.0089	0.171 ± 0.068	=0.0123	0.168 ± 0.064	=0.0089	0.171 ± 0.064	=0.0081
Heart rate	0.153 ± 0.063	=0.0161	0.165 ± 0.065	=0.0123	0.150 ± 0.063	=0.0186	0.155 ± 0.063	=0.0151
Metabolic Factors
Ln glucose	—	—	0.086 ± 0.067	=0.202	—	—	—	—
Ln Triglycerides	—	—	—	—	0.026 ± 0.068	=0.698	—	—
Ln Total/HDL cholesterol	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.049 ± 0.065	=0.452
Hemodynamic factors
Brachial systolic BP	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Brachial pulse pressure	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Central arterial SBP	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Central arterial PP	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Pb	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Peak P_QxZc	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Model r²	0.2218	<0.0001	0.2152	<0.0001	0.2224	<0.0001	0.2238	<0.0001

IMT versus	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value
	Model 5		Model 6		Model 7		Model 8
Age	0.264 ± 0.066	< 0.0001	0.268 ± 0.066	< 0.0001	0.262 ± 0.065	< 0.0001	0.257 ± 0.066	=0.0001
Sex (male)	0.132 ± 0.072	=0.071	0.149 ± 0.072	=0.0390	0.141 ± 0.072	=0.051	0.167 ± 0.072	=0.0207
BMI	0.213 ± 0.071	=0.0028	0.218 ± 0.071	=0.0022	0.216 ± 0.070	=0.0025	0.228 ± 0.070	=0.0013
Regular smoking	0.050 ± 0.065	=0.447	0.062 ± 0.065	=0.343	0.048 ± 0.065	=0.464	0.056 ± 0.065	=0.392
Regular alcohol	−0.033 ± 0.065	=0.614	−0.044 ± 0.065	=0.505	−0.034 ± 0.065	=0.600	−0.043 ± 0.065	=0.510
Diabetes mellitus	0.047 ± 0.064	=0.469	0.036 ± 0.064	=0.578	0.048 ± 0.064	=0.453	0.037 ± 0.064	=0.565
Treatment for HT	−0.094 ± 0.066	=0.153	−0.086 ± 0.066	=0.190	−0.096 ± 0.066	=0.146	−0.093 ± 0.066	=0.157
Mean arterial pressure	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Heart rate	0.153 ± 0.063	=0.0159	0.142 ± 0.065	=0.0248	0.171 ± 0.063	=0.0076	0.180 ± 0.064	=0.0053
Metabolic Factors
Ln glucose	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Ln Triglycerides	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Ln Total/HDL cholesterol	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Hemodynamic factors
Brachial systolic BP	0.187 ± 0.065	=0.0046	—	—	—	—	—	—
Brachial pulse pressure	—	—	0.168 ± 0.063	=0.0098	—	—	—	—
Central arterial SBP	—	—	—	—	0.194 ± 0.065	=0.0033	—	—
Central arterial PP	—	—	—	—	—	—	0.189 ± 0.066	=0.0047
Pb	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Peak P_QxZc	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Model r²	0.2260	<0.0001	0.2317	<0.0001	0.2282	<0.0001	0.2258	<0.0001

IMT versus	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Stand. β±sem	p-value	Partial r	(95% CI)
	Model 9		Model 10		Final model		Final model
Age	0.257 ± 0.068	=0.0002	0.273 ± 0.067	< 0.0001	0.250 ± 0.067	=0.0002	0.244	(0.115 – 0.363)
Sex (male)	0.174 ± 0.072	=0.0170	0.144 ± 0.073	=0.0493	0.125 ± 0.074	=0.093	0.113	(−0.019–0.241)
BMI	0.244 ± 0.070	=0.0006	0.228 ± 0.071	=0.0015	0.202 ± 0.072	=0.0054	0.186	(0.055 – 0.310)
Regular smoking	0.057 ± 0.065	=0.381	0.064 ± 0.065	=0.326	0.048 ± 0.065	=0.462	0.050	(−0.083 – 0.180)
Regular alcohol	−0.028 ± 0.065	=0.671	−0.025 ± 0.066	=0.701	−0.032 ± 0.065	=0.625	−0.033	(−0.164 – 0.099)
Diabetes mellitus	0.036 ± 0.064	=0.579	0.031 ± 0.065	=0.627	0.042 ± 0.064	=0.517	0.044	(−0.088 – 0.174)
Treatment for HT	−0.075 ± 0.065	=0.254	−0.076 ± 0.066	=0.250	−0.093 ± 0.066	=0.161	−0.094	(−0.223 – 0.038)
Mean arterial pressure	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Heart rate	0.177 ± 0.065	=0.0068	0.145 ± 0.063	=0.0225	0.173 ± 0.063	=0.0069	0.181	(0.050 – 0.305)
Metabolic Factors
Ln glucose	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Ln Triglycerides	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Ln Total/HDL cholesterol	—	—	—	—	0.055 ± 0.065	=0.400	0.057	(−0.076 – 0.187)
Hemodynamic factors
Brachial systolic BP	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Brachial pulse pressure	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Central arterial SBP	—	—	—	—	0.198 ± 0.066	=0.0028	0.200	(0.070 – 0.323)
Central arterial PP	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Pb	0.152 ± 0.066	=0.0231	—	—	—	—	—	—
Peak P_QxZc	—	—	0.135 ± 0.065	=0.0390	—	—	—	—
Model r²	0.2158	<0.0001	0.2126	<0.0001	0.2307	<0.0001

The basic model included age, sex, BMI, regular smoking, regular drinking, diabetes mellitus (except for models with glucose due to collinearity), treatment for hypertension, mean arterial pressure (except for models with hemodynamic pressure factors due to collinearity) and heart rate. Subsequent models included those metabolic or hemodynamic factors that were significant in bivariate associations (Table 2). The final model included both metabolic and hemodynamic factors, where the most significant for each were chosen, and total /HDL cholesterol was included as a comparator. Significant p-values are shown in bold type.
Β, slope, BMI body mass index, BP blood pressure, BSA body surface area, CI confidence interval, HDL high-density lipoprotein. HT hypertension, Ln natural logarithm, Pb backward wave pressure, Peak P_QxZc, component of forward wave pressure generated by the product of peak Q and Zc, PP pulse pressure, r Pearson’s correlation coefficient, SBP systolic blood pressure; Stand, standardised.

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Table 4 Multivariate models showing associations between cardiovascular risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in middle-aged adults (age 35–59 years, n = 231).

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