Fig. 5: Static and dynamic performance of actuators.

a Finite element analysis displacement profile for array structure with 30 rows of cells. Force has been applied at the end of the structure, and based on the displacement, the stiffness is calculated. b Frequency response of a 2 × 2 mm device showing resonance frequency at 712 Hz. c Graph presenting plot of the experimental results of radius of curvature for the three different device sizes upon increasing the actuation voltage. d Graph presenting experimental results of the bending moment with change of the actuation voltage for the three different actuator device sizes