Table 2 Force, displacement, energy density, and actuation voltage of the arrayed cellular actuator compared to other works recently reported in this area of research

Electrostatic piston tube actuator⁴⁴

59 µN

28 µm

0.178 µJ/cm³*

80 V

Zipper microstate actuator⁵¹

32 µN

212 µm

NR*

135 V

Repulsive actuator for large out-of-plane force⁵²

40 µN

15 µm

NR**

120 V

PZT actuator with MEMS enabled motion amplifier⁵³

5.3 mN

3.3 µm

0.02 mJ/cm³ *

170 V

Nano electrostatic drive (NED) actuator⁴⁵

NR**

226 nm

NR**

45 V

Piezoelectrically driven microactuator⁵⁴

NR**

145 µm

NR**

22 V

Electrostatic MEMS repulsive comb-drive actuator⁵⁵

NR**

58 µm

NR**

25 V

Shape memory alloy actuator for silicon microgrippers²⁵

1150 µN

800 µm

NR**

NR**

Arrayed cellular electrostatic actuator

80 mN

678 µm

1.42 mJ/cm³

46 V