Fig. 5: Real-time perception characteristics of the electroelastomer cylindrical actuator.

a–c, d–f, and g, h are the characterizations for 1DOF, 2DOF, and 3DOF actuators, respectively. a Resistance changes and length strain when the actuator is subjected to a continuous voltage. Dynamic performance of the sensor under b actuating voltages of 1, 3, and 5 kV and c actuating frequencies of 0.1, 1, and 10 Hz. Sensing signals and bending angle when the actuator is bent d only in one direction and e in both left and right directions. f Sensing signals and length strain when both electrodes are energized simultaneously. The resistance changes when the three electrodes are energized g sequentially and h alternately