Fig. 2: Innovative designs for electrode-tissue interfaces.

The fabrication processes and representative configurations of the 3D electrode-tissue interface with schematic diagrams and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the electrodes. a Mushroom-shaped electrode. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁴⁹ with permission from Frontiers; Ref. ⁴⁸ with permission from Wiley. b Nanopillar electrode. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁴³ with permission from Springer Nature; Ref. ⁵² with permission from American Chemical Society. c Nanowire electrode. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁴⁰ with permission from Springer Nature. d iridium oxide (IrOx) nanotube electrodes. Inset: Top view showing the hollow center. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁵⁸ with permission from Springer Nature; Ref. ⁶⁰ with permission from American Chemical Society. e Volcano-shaped electrode. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁴² with permission from the American Chemical Society. f Nanocrown electrode. Inset: Enlarged view of the electrode tip. Reprinted and modified from Ref. ⁶⁴ with permission from Springer Nature