Table 2 Summary of passive 3D nanoelectrode applications for cardiac electrophysiology

gMμEs

CVD, evaporation, photolithography, gold electroplating, etching

Ti-Au- SiO₂

62

Electroporation

6

2–10 min

Rat primary cardiomyocytes

-

⁴⁸

Vertical nanopillar

PECVD, FIB, photolithography

Pt-Ti-Si₃N₄-SiO₂- Pt

16

Electroporation

11.8

10 min

HL-1 cells

Drug screening

⁴⁴

Nanopillar

CVD, EBL, FIB, etching

Pt-SiO₂

-

Electroporation

25.15

-

hPSC-CMs

Drug screening, Modeling disease

⁴³

Nanopillar

FIB, deposition, etching

Au-SU8-Pt-SiO₂

16

Electroporation

2.3

~10 min

HL-1 cells

Modeling disease

¹¹⁸

Nanopillar

ALD, photolithography, etching

PET-Al₂O₃-Au-Ti-SU8

-

Electroporation

0.2216 ± 0.2175

-

Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Drug screening

⁵⁴

IrOx nanotube

PECVD, EBL, photolithography, etching, deposition

Pt/Ti-Si₃N₄-SiO₂-IrOx

60

Electroporation

15

~60 min

HL-1 cells, primary rat cardiomyocytes

-

⁶⁰

Vertical NW

PECVD, ALD, photolithography, etching

SiO₂-Ti-Pt-SiO₂

1024

Electroporation

20

-

Rat ventricular cardiomyocytes

Drug screening

⁴⁰

Ultrasharp NW

PECVD, EBL, photolithography, etching

Si-SiO₂-Pt-SiO₂

4

Spontaneous penetration

60

-

iPSC-derived cardiovascular progenitor cells

-

⁵⁹

3D plasmonic nanoelectrode

FIB, evaporation

Ti/Au-SU8-SiO₂-Polyimide

-

Plasmonic optoporation

1.5

~80 min

HL-1 cells

-

⁵²

Nanovolcano

EBL, photolithography, deposition, etching

Ti-Pt-Ti-Au-Ti-SiO₂-SU8

32

Spontaneous penetration

20

Over 1 h

Primary rat cardiomyocytes

-

⁴²

Nanobranched

Photolithography, hydrothermal growth

ZnO-Cr/Au or Pt-SU8

16/32

Electroporation

~5

105 min

Rat cardiomyocytes

-

⁶⁹

Nanorods

Photolithography, hydrothermal growth

ZnO-Cr-Au(or Pt)-SU8

32

Electroporation

~5

~80 s

Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

-

⁷²

Nanocrown

FIB, deposition, etching

Cr-Ti-Pt-Si₃N₄-SiO₂

58

Electroporation

~63

~60 min

hPSC-CMs

Drug screening

⁶⁶

Nanotrap

Photolithography, deposition

PET-Ti-Au-SU8

32

Electroporation

4.32

~100 min

Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Drug screening

⁷⁰

Nanowell

FIB, photolithography, deposition, etching

Si-Cr-Au-SiO₂-Ni

16

Electroporation

~0.1

10–20 min

HL-1 cells

-

⁶⁸

Vertical nanotemplate

ALD, photolithography, etching

PET-Al₂O₃-Ti-Au-SU8

32

Electroporation

6.97

10 min

Primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Drug screening

⁵³

Hollow nanopillar

ALD, photolithography, etching

PET-Al₂O₃-Ti-Au-SU8

32

Electroporation

1.5

Over 100 min

Primary rat cardiomyocytes

Drug screening

⁷³

Supramolecular self-assemblies

Evaporation, deposition

Ti-Au-SiO₂- SS-1, or SS-2, or SS-3

16

Electroporation

~4.0

10 min

Primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

-

⁷¹