Fig. 5

Motion control applications of MEAs cultured with neural networks. a Applications in virtual environments (i) path planning tasks conducted within computer software. Reproduced with permission from ref. ²⁴ (2012, CC BY 3.0) (ii) training in vitro neural networks to play simple arcade games such as “Pong,” collecting motor area potential information to map to game play decisions, and giving sensory areas electrical stimulation based on game play effects. Reproduced with permission from ref. ⁵ (2022, CC BY 4.0). b Application in physical environments (i) controlling a robotic arm for artistic creation, converting photographs into electrical stimuli via a CCD camera to feed back to the neural network so that it can draw as it learns⁹. Copyright 2007 by Frontiers Research Foundation. Reproduced with permission. (ii) navigating a robot in a physical environment¹¹. Copyright 2015 by Elsevier. Reproduced with permission. (iii) controlling a robotic car for obstacle avoidance. Reproduced with permission from ref. ¹⁰ (2021, CC BY 4.0) (iv) controlling a robotic arm to mimic human hand movements. where the mechanical values are used as a feedback reference for the stimulus, training allows the system to discriminate between grasping patterns. Reproduced with permission from ref. ⁵⁹ (2024, CC BY 4.0)