Table 2 Organoids models for organs and cancers of female reproductive tract.

From: Organoid modeling meets cancers of female reproductive tract

Organoid model types		Organoid sources	Numbers of organoid lines	Hotspot mutations	Model validation method	Applications	Ref.
Cervix uterus	SqCa	Patient tumor tissue	11	TP53, ARID1B, CDKN2A, ELF3, FAT1, BRCA1/2, ATM, FANCA	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, gene expression patterns, genetic mutations, viral transcriptome	Drug screening, xenograft, viral infection model, HPV infection study	[50]
	AdCa	Patient tumor tissue	1	FBXW7, CASP8, NOTCH3, PDGFRB, TSC2, EPHA2, EPHA5			[50]
	Invasive SqCa, AdCa, LCNEC, villoglandular AdCa, SCNEC	Patient tumor tissue	17	KRAS, TP53, KMT2C, PRSS1	Histological analysis, diagnostic marker, copy number variation	High-throughput drug screening, radiotherapy response prediction	[59]
	HSIL	Patient HSIL tissue	22	MUC16, PRUNE2	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, karyotype identification, subcellular structure, HPV testing, gene expression patterns, genetic mutations	Drug screening, xenograft, co-culture with PBMC	[63]
	SqCa	Patient tumor tissue	15	HLA-B, ERBB3, ERBB2, NDC80, KLF6, EPS8, WASF2, MARK2, PIK3R4, TRIP12, CDKN2AIP, ISG15, FLT1, UBE3A, SERPINB2, RBBP8		Drug screening, xenograft, co-culture with PBMC	[63]
	SqCa, AdCa	Patient tumor tissue	67	PIK3CA, EP300, FBXW7, PTEN, ARID1A, TTN	Pathological analysis, HPV testing, phenotype markers, gene expression patterns, genetic mutations	Radiotherapy and combined platinum sensitivity testing, paired TILs killing assay, xenograft	[69]
	CCC	Patient tumor tissue	1	PIK3C2B, MLH1, FLT1, SMARCA4, TFE3	Pathological analysis, genomic DNA analysis	Drug screening	[65]
	SCCC	Patient tumor tissue	1	AHNAK, CNOT1, KIAA1551, KRAS, MAP2K3, SON, XIRP2, ATP2B3	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genetic mutations, HPV18 integration sites	KRAS pathway inhibitor testing, xenograft	[67]
	Healthy ectocervix	Human cervix tissue	N/A	N/A	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, transcriptomic analysis, live-cell imaging, HPV testing	HPV and Chlamydia trachomatis infection study, co-culture with γδ T cells	[53, 54, 64]
Endometrium	EC	Patient tumor tissue	N/A	FBXW7, ARID1A, PTEN, CTCF, PIK3CA, TP53, POLE, FAT1, CTNNB1	Mutational landscape analysis	Tumor heterogeneity study, drug screening, xenograft	[9]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	N/A		Mutational landscape analysis	Lentiviral transduction, searching therapeutic targets	[87]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	15	N/A	Histological analysis, phenotype markers	Drug screening, response prediction to estrogen and progesterone	[82]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	3	PTEN, ZNF286A, ARAID1A, PIK3CA, FGF	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genetic mutations	Treated by cancer-associated fibroblasts culture supernatant	[90]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	11	N/A	Pathological analysis	Drug testing and mechanism research	[83]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	N/A	N/A	Phenotype markers	Drug testing and mechanism research	[80]
	EC	Patient tumor tissue	2	N/A	Phenotype markers	Drug sensitivity testing	[84]
	EC, serous, CCC, mixed serous and EC	Patient tumor tissue or g ascites fluid	22	N/A	N/A	Drug screening	[81]
	EMC	Patient tumor tissue	5	PTEN, PIK3CA, ARID1A, CHEK2	Pathological analysis, genetic mutations	Tumorigenicity study, drug screening, xenograft	[24]
Ovary	HGSC, LGSC, CCC	Patient tumor tissue or g ascites fluid	21	N/A	N/A	Drug screening	[81]
	BBT, HGSC, EMC, SBT, MC	Patient tumor tissue	9	NF1, TP53, PKHD1, DST	Pathological analysis, genetic mutations	Tumorigenicity study, drug screening, xenograft	[24]
	HGSC, EMC, MBT, CCC	Patient tumor tissue	18	BRCA1, BRCA2, MLH1, PIK3CA, TP53, ARID1A, MSH2	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genetic mutations, copy number variations	Drug screening	[121]
	HGSC	Patient tumor tissue	6	TP53, FANCC, NOTCH2, BRCA1, BRIP1, RAD21, ERCC4, MSH3, ABL1, MGMT	Histological analysis, gene expression patterns, genetic mutations	Drug sensitivity testing	[123]
	HGSC	Patient tumor tissue	6	ABL1, AKT2, ALK, ALOX12B, CHEK2, CSF3R, DICER1, EP300, ERCC4, FAT1	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genetic mutations,	Drug sensitivity testing, potential target searching	[125]
	LGSC	Patient tumor tissue	1	CHEK2, AKT1, IRS2, MSH3, MUTYH, NOTCH3, MLL2/KMT2D	Genetic mutations	Drug sensitivity testing	[97]
	MBT, SBT, MC, LGSC, CCC, EMC, HGSC	Patient tumor tissue	56	KRAS, BRAF, TP53, MYC, CCNE1, RB1, PTEN, CDKN2A/B	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genomic landscape	Genetic manipulation, drug screening, xenograft, drug sensitivity testing	[39]
	HGSC, LGSC, HG, SBT, MBT, MC, EMC, CCC	Patient tumor tissue	36	N/A	Histological analysis, genomic features	Drug screening, tumor heterogeneity study	[41]
	HGSC, high-grade mixed type carcinoma, CS, HGPC	Patient tumor tissue	4	N/A	Histological analysis	High-throughput drug screening, xenograft	[131]
	HGSC	Frozen tissue from patient tumor and ascites drainage	10	CCNE1, KRAS, MYC, MECOM, RB1, CSMD3, CDK12, KMT2B, KMT2C, CCNA2	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genomic landscape, genetic mutations, transcriptomic features	Drug sensitivity testing	[134]
	HGSC	Patient tumor tissue	13	N/A	Immune cell type analysis	Co-culture with immune cells, immune checkpoint blockade testing and mechanism research	[127]
	HGSC	Patient tumor tissue	33	BRCA1, BRCA2, TP53	Histological analysis, phenotype markers, genetic mutations	Drug screening, DNA repair profiling and therapeutic sensitivity testing	[119]
Fallopian tube	Early-stage carcinogenesis	iPSC	3	BRCA1	Histological analysis, differentiation markers, tumor markers, precancerous molecular properties, genetic mutations	Neoplastic conversion testing, xenograft, PARPi effect testing	[18]

This table lists the female reproductive tumor organoids that have been reported in the literature and the organoid models that can be used to mimic tumors by infection or gene editing. We selected organoids derived from human stem cells, including as many valuable studies as possible. Studies that only attempted organoid construction without sufficient characterization, representational validation, and application research are not included in this table. For the gene mutation column, if the number of mutated genes mentioned in the references is too large, the top 10 mutated genes are prioritized for display.
AdCa cervical adenocarcinoma, SqCa cervical squamous carcinoma, LCNEC large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, SCNEC small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, HSIL high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, SCCC small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix, EC endometrial cancer, EMC endometrioid carcinoma, CCC clear cell carcinoma, BBT borderline Brenner tumor, HGSC high-grade serous carcinoma, MB malignant Brenner tumor, MBT mucinous borderline tumors, SBT serous borderline tumor, MC mucinous carcinoma, LGSC low-grade serous carcinoma, HG high-grade adenocarcinoma, CS carcinosarcoma, HGPC high-grade peritoneal carcinoma.

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Table 2 Organoids models for organs and cancers of female reproductive tract.

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