Fig. 6
Celiac duodenal microbiota induces proteolytic activity and intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs). a Protocol for the colonization of germ-free C57BL/6 mice with human small intestinal aspirates from celiac disease (CeD) patients (n = 4) or controls (n = 5). b Beta-diversity of small intestinal microbiota profiles of recipient mice colonized with human aspirates of patients with CeD and without CeD (controls), using Bray–Curtis dissimilarity represented as non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMSD). Differences between bacterial communities were tested by permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) using Qiime. Each donor was used to colonize 2–3 mice, and each dot represents an individual mouse. c Glutenasic activity per donor (left side) and pooled (right side), measured in the small intestine of mice colonized with small intestinal aspirates from control or CeD donors. Representative bioassays are shown. d Quantitative measurement of IELs/100 enterocytes in small intestinal villi tips of mice colonized with small intestinal aspirates from control or CeD donors. IEL counts per donor (left panel) and pooled counts (right panel) are shown. Data for c, d are presented as median with interquartile range and whiskers extending from minimum to maximum. Each dot represents an individual mouse. Each donor, as indicated by a different color, was used to colonize 2–3 mice. Displayed P values were calculated by Mann–Whitney test. Tissue from one recipient mouse receiving CeD donor 2 presented technical difficulties during embedding and processing and was dropped out. e Correlation between glutenasic activity and IEL counts in the small intestine of mice colonized with small intestinal aspirates (n = 23). Each dot represents an individual mouse. Correlation based on Spearman's index. f Correlation between relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes and small intestinal glutenasic activity of mice colonized with small intestinal aspirates (n = 23). Each dot represents an individual mouse. Displayed P values from Proteobacteria and Firmicutes survived 10% false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Correlation based on Spearman's index
