Fig. 1

Satellite and buoy NTU1 observations of Nepartak. a Satellite SST difference between pre-storm SST (5 July) and post-storm SST (8 July) with the typhoon track indicated by the gray line. Dashed circles and white contours in a indicate the radius of the Beaufort scale 10 wind and sea level anomalies of −0.1 and −0.2 m. Buoy NTU1 observed parameters: b air pressure (black line) and wind speed (blue line); c temperature in the upper 300 m; d meridional current velocity V_curr at 75 m (black line) and meridional wind velocity V_wind (red line). The two red vertical lines in b–d mark the beginning (left) and end (right) of the forced period. The black curve in c is the 27.2 °C isotherm. e Observed (red line), simulated (blue line), and pre-storm (black dashed line) temperature profiles at times 1–6 as indicated by the vertical black dashed lines in c and d. Black lines in e mark the mixed layer depth. The black vertical line in b–d marks the time of minimum sea level pressure