Table 1 Processes and cases of gene–culture coevolution

From: The reach of gene–culture coevolution in animals

Process of gene–culture coevolution

Typical or relevant characteristics of culture (not necessarily sufficient)

Stronger evidence

Weaker evidence

Circumstantial evidence

Culture selects functional genes

Transgenerational transmission of phenotypes typically stable; strong selection derives from behavioural homogeneity; conformity.

Humans (e.g., LCT, AMY1, HbS…)31,48 Killer whales (e.g., methionine-expressed alleles, …)42

Birds50

Non-human primatesa

Culture favours adaptations for culture

Complex and diverse learning environment created by culture; adaptive advantages of strategic and high-fidelity copying; socially transmitted technology; conformity.

Humans2,48,54,66,124

Cetaceans37 Non-human primates59,61,63,64 Birds46

 

Culture generates selection across species

Transgenerational transmission of phenotypes modifies selection on other species.

Humans48,80,114

Birds18,74,76

Killer whalesa

Culture shapes neutral genetic variation in space

Stable, transgenerational transmission of phenotypes.

Humans48,125 Long-lived birds90 Beluga whales91 Baleen whales79 Bottlenose dolphins86

  

Culture can reduce genetic diversity

Stable, transgenerational transmission of phenotypes; behavioural homogeneity.

 

Sperm whales95 Killer whales95 Humans48,94

Pilot whales95 False killer whales95 Birds92

Culture may drive the early phases of speciation

Stable, transgenerational transmission of phenotypes; behavioural homogeneity; conformity.

Birds44,48,98,126 Killer whales77 Humans48

 

Homininsa

  1. Cases are designated as ‘stronger evidence’ where there exists compelling experimental, theoretical or correlational data that imply gene–culture coevolution. Cases with ‘weaker evidence’ are those where experimental, theoretical or correlational data are consistent with gene–culture coevolution but where plausible alternative explanations have not been ruled out. Cases described as ‘circumstantial’ are those in which gene–culture coevolution has been proposed but not yet investigated
  2. aProposal made in the text
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