Fig. 2: Variations of global dust, radiative forcings and temperature with surface erodibility.

All variables are in global mean except in (a) where the global sum is shown. a The surface emission, dry and wet deposition onto the surface, and total (dry + wet) deposition into the ocean, of dust every year (unit: Tg yr⁻¹); b Dust Direct Shortwave Effect (DDSE) which represents the reduction of solar radiation received at the surface, anomalous downward sensible heat flux and longwave radiative fluxes at the surface due to dust (see method section for how they are diagnosed); c Annual mean surface temperature; d Longwave, shortwave and net cloud radiative forcings, where the latter two are negative but their absolute values are shown for the sake of convenience; e Heating rate of the atmosphere by dust; f Vertical temperature profiles of the atmosphere. The red markers in (a–d) are values for the cases with dynamic vegetation turned on. Note that both the horizontal and vertical axes in (a) are in base-10 logarithmic scale, so the lines in this panel indicate linear relationship. The x-axes for erodibility (dimensionless variable) in panels (b–d) are in logarithmic scale except the zero erodibility point.