Fig. 1: Local-scale hysteresis of forest cover and its interaction with the regional forest–rainfall feedback.

a A stability landscape of forest cover against rainfall levels. At high rainfall levels, high forest cover is uni-stable (I; green), called ‘stable forest’ throughout this paper. At intermediate rainfall levels, high forest cover (II) and low forest cover (III; nonforest) are bistable states (yellow). At low rainfall levels, only the nonforested state can exist (IV; red). b The regional forest–rainfall feedback amplifies hysteresis: minimal forest extent includes only stable forests (green), thereby lacking the rainfall enhancement by bistable forests; maximal forest extent includes forests that are bistable (yellow), which then contribute to downwind rainfall levels and may stabilize forests on those locations.