Fig. 3: Dynamic characteristic of Gaussian-preserved shape morphing.

a Curvature in x-direction as a function of temperature varied with time. Red and blue circles present heating and cooling processes, respectively, indicating the shape-shifting process from the rolled shape (K_x = 5 × 10⁴ m⁻¹) to the folded shape (K_x = 0). The orange circles present the shape-shifting process within 4.5 μs from folded shape to rolled shape triggered by mechanical stimuli. b Actuation speed, orange dashed line, and relative curvature change of membrane-based actuators in the literature and our work.