Fig. 1: Fabrication of cell-laden and multifunctional scaffold modules.

a Schematic illustration of vapor-phase sublimation and deposition fabrication process. Iced template modules with defined internal composition and outer architecture were formed through discrete module assembly and resulted in a continuous final modulated construct by subsequent vapor deposition. b The analysis of vapor composition by real-time mass spectrometry during the fabrication process shows the presence of sublimated water vapor at 18 amu and the deposited quinodimethane monomers at 104 amu and 139 amu. c An overlaid image of LIVE/DEAD-stained hASCs prepared in an oil-in-water system. Verification of hASCs within a fabricated module after vapor-phase deposition process by d LIVE/DEAD staining, e fluorescence labeling with Alexa Fluor® 488-conjugated phalloidin to stain the cytoskeleton (green) and propidium iodide to stain the nucleus (red); a high-resolution and magnified image of a stained cell was shown in the inset, and f SEM dissection image. Each experiment was repeated three times independently (n = 3) with similar results.