Fig. 2: Mechanism of bioenhancement in a nBSC.

a–c Schematic illustration of ion transport and energy storage mechanism between two working electrodes in different electrolytes: a Faradaic reactions in presence of Na⁺ and Cl^- ions in medical saline. b Faradaic reactions coupled with bioelectrocatalysis due to the presence of enzymes in blood plasma electrolyte. c ATP synthesis coupled with bioelectrochemical reactions enhancing the electrochemical response of the nBSC in blood. d Schematic illustration of a three-electrode setup with a working electrode (the measured sample), reference electrode (Ag/AgCl) and counter electrode (platinum rod) to determine redox/catalytic reactions. e CV curve of various working electrode configurations measured in blood electrolyte at a scan rate of 30 mV \({{{{\rm{s}}}}}^{-1}.\) f CV curve of various working electrode configurations measured in NaCl electrolyte at a scan rate of 30 mV \({{{{\rm{s}}}}}^{-1}.\) g Self-discharge/self-charge of nBSCs under different electrolyte fluids for 1.5 h. h Self-discharge profile in blood after 5000x GCD cycles. Inset shows cross-sectional images of tubular nBSC after 5000x GCD cycles. (All measurements are performed under ambient condition at 25 °C.).