Fig. 2: EVT invasion in the implantation-on-a-chip.

a Top-down view of the device containing fetal EVTs and maternal ECs visualized at Days 2, 4, and 6. The representative images are from four independent devices. EVTs were stained with CellTracker Green and DAPI, whereas ECs are shown with DAPI staining alone. Scale bar, 200 μm. b–d Quantification of EVT invasion. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparison test (n = 4 independent devices). e Confocal rendering of 3D EVT migration in the ECM scaffold towards the maternal vessel. The representative image is from three independent devices. Scale bar, 200 μm. f EVT invasion in three ECM conditions. Images were taken at Day 6. Scale bars, 200 μm. g Cross-sectional view showing 3D distribution of invading EVTs (green) across the thickness of each hydrogel construct. The representative images of f, g are from three independent experiments. h Quantification of invasion area (left) and the number of invading EVTs (right). One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparison test (n = 3 independent devices per group). i Comparison of ECM invasion by primary EVTs and HTR-8/SV neo cells (HTRs) after 6 days of coculture with ECs. ECs in the vascular chamber were not fluorescently labeled and are therefore not visible in the images. The representative images are from three independent experiments. Scale bars, 200 μm. Invasive activity was evaluated by the number of invading cells and area of invasion at Day 6. Two-sided t-test (n = 3 independent devices per group). Data are presented as mean ± SD. p values are shown on graphs. n.s.; not significant. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.