Fig. 2: Operating parameters and segmented water evolution in the single serpentine anode and cathode flow fields.

a Voltage curves for current holds from 100 mA cm⁻² to 700 mA cm⁻²; b Current curves for potential hold values 0.7, 0.5 and 0.3 V. c Water volume build up during cell operation at 400 mA cm⁻² in the anode and cathode channels. There is less water formation in the anode channel than in the cathode, with a higher concentration in the lower cell section. The cathode displays a more homogeneous water distribution with a slightly increasing water volume gradient towards the bottom of the cell. The MEA exhibits a steady accumulation of water in the first 500 s before stabilising.