Fig. 1: Global historical land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) and the resulting cumulative increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations from 1850 to 2014.

a Land-cover fractions (relative to global land except for Antarctica) of primary vegetation (dark green), secondary vegetation (light green), cropland (orange), grazing land (yellow), and urban land (pink). The fractions of the five land-cover types add up to less than 1 due to the coverage of ice and water (shown in the white area). b Annual global wood harvest (Pg C yr⁻¹) for fuelwood (red) and industrial roundwood (yellow). c Global irrigated area (blue line, 10⁶ km²) and annual fertilizer usage (red line, Tg N yr⁻¹). a–c are based on the LUH2 dataset^4,43,46. d LULCC-induced cumulative increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (ppm). The black line and corresponding brown shading denote the median and 25–75th percentile range of ensemble members.