Fig. 3: The majority of V1 indirect neurons exhibited plasticity during BCI training.

a A substantial number of indirect neurons were correlated with at least one DP neuron. Pairwise correlations were computed across all indirect-DP pairs across trials for a given session, at the time of success; pairs with a significant correlation (Pearson’s correlation, α = 0.05) are shown. The number of indirect neurons significantly correlated with at least one DP neuron is indicated (pie chart, session 1: 653 and last session: 675 neurons). b Left, imaging field of view of an example animal. Indirect neurons that were tracked in Session 1 and the last session are indicated by overlays (54 neurons). The direction of change in activity level at the time of success is indicated. Right, the distribution of the median change in activity amplitude for the neurons that exhibited a significant difference across trials (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, α = 0.05, n = 207 neurons) between Session 1 and the last session. The distribution was skewed in the positive direction (one-sample K–S test, p = 7.9E−38(***), n = 207 neurons). c Pairwise noise correlation between V1 neurons, including both direct and indirect neurons, significantly increased after BCI training (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p = 0.0015). The visual stimulation imaging session immediately preceding BCI training onset (VS baseline 2, n = 599 neuron pairs) and after BCI learning (VS post-learning, n = 609 neuron pairs) were compared. Trials with locomotion were removed prior to this analysis. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.