Fig. 2: Energy-level diagram of the photoanode and cathode: type 2 heterostructures formed between BiVO4/WO3.

Photo-induced electron-hole pairs were separated via the inner electronic field; the electron transferred to the single-metal sites in the cathode through the external circuit to complete the 2e−ORR reaction, while the hole transferred to the BiVO4 surface and participated in the 2e−WOR on the SnO2-x/BiVO4/WO3 photoanode.