Table 1 Summary of rewarming methods*

RF nanowarming

RF heating of IONP

2.5 × 10⁶

1–80 mL

Porcine arteries (~0.7 mm)

Porcine heart valve (~1.4 mm)

>300

^20,24,38

Metal form

RF heating of Al foil

3.5−6.5 × 10⁸

1.3 cm × 2.8 cm

Porcine arteries (1-2 mm)

1.3−2 × 10³

²¹

Focused IR light

IR absorption of water

NA

200 µL

Adherent cells (~4 µm)

2 − 30 × 10³

²⁹

Laser nanowarming

Laser plasmonic heating

4.4 × 10¹¹

<10 µL droplet

Coral larvae (~100 µm)

Cells in suspension (~15 µm)

7 × 10⁴–1.2 × 10⁷

^3,23,30

Joule heating

Electrical current heating

3–600 × 10¹¹

15 cm × 1 cm

Adherent cells (~4 µm)

Drosophila embryo (~50 µm)

Kidney slices (~1.2 mm)

5 × 10⁴–6.8 × 10⁸

This work