Fig. 3: Modeling the effect of preconditioning the dark pixels.

Electric field in electrolyte generated by the grating pattern with and without preconditioning of the dark pixels. a Photovoltaic array of 1.5 mm in diameter composed of monopolar pixels of 40 μm width, with a common return electrode (indicated by *) along the edge of the implant. b Electric potential in electrolyte 10 μm above the implant relative to the middle of IPL (57 μm), plotted along the dash line shown in a, when the dark pixels are non-conductive (red) and preconditioned (blue). c, d Magnified view of the electric potential and current in the medium for three adjacent pixels. Length of the arrows represents the 0.6 power of the magnitude of the current density for visualization. Scale bar is 20 μm. Source data are provided as a source data file.