Fig. 1: Comparison of module efficiencies.

Maximum energy conversion efficiency (ηmax) versus temperature difference (ΔT) for the HH-based single-stage and segmented modules. Some representative achievements in other novel TE modules are also illustrated for comparison, including the single-stage models of half-Heusler6,12,29,37,38,39, Mg2Si40, skutterudite (SKD)41,42, Pb–Te based3, Ge–Te based4,5,43, Mg3Sb2 7,8, and various segmented modules of PbSe/Bi2Te3 2, PbTe/Bi2Te3 3, SKD/Bi2Te3 34, LAST/Bi2Te3 44, TAGS/Bi2Te345 and HH/Bi2Te3 46. The published data of these modules are summarized in Table S4.