Fig. 2: Cumulative energy demand of the coupled PEC device.

a Energy distribution pie-chart of our coupled PEC device indicating the contribution from the various components. Photoelectrodes material and fabrication consume the most energy (70.4%) and SHJ bottom absorber is the most energy-intensive component. b Logarithmic plot of the primary energy demand (MJ/m2) of each component—divided into two categories: Material and Fabrication—of the coupled PEC device. Errors bars for cell fabrication and materials reflect the outcome from the uncertainty analysis.