Fig. 1: Catalytic performance toward ESR reaction and kinetic studies on CO and CH₄ reforming.

a Schematic representation for the reaction paths of ESR reaction (Red arrow indicates the key step). b Ethanol conversion, products yield and c H₂ production rate over various catalysts (reaction conditions: catalyst (0.15 g) + SiO₂ (1.50 g); liquid feed of S/C = 3 at 0.060 mL min⁻¹; N₂ carrier at 50.0 mL min⁻¹; reaction temperature: 400 °C; time on stream: 1.5 h). d Time on stream (TOS) test of 0.5RhNi/TiO₂ catalyst at 400 °C. e, f Reaction rate for CO/CH₄ steam reforming reaction within kinetic range (CO or CH₄ conversion <10%). Reaction conditions: catalyst (5 mg) + SiO₂ (50 mg), liquid feed of H₂O at 0.032 mL min⁻¹, CO at 50.0 mL min⁻¹, CH₄ at 10 mL min⁻¹, CO₂/H₂ at 10.0 mL min⁻¹, N₂ carrier at 50 mL min⁻¹, reaction temperature: 400 °C, time on stream: 0.5 h. g Percentage variation in reaction rate of CO steam reforming with CO₂/H₂ addition over Ni/TiO₂, 0.5RhNi/TiO₂, Rh/Ni, and Rh/TiO₂ catalysts, respectively. h, i MS signals from the operando pulse experiment of ethanol and water (S/C = 3) over 0.5RhNi/TiO₂ catalyst at 400 °C. j Enlarged view for MS signals of the three species in i.