Fig. 1: Study region.

A Locations discussed in the study (Black, red, white and blue points). SCH= Schrattenkarst, COR= Corchia, TR= Trentino, BAR= Baradla and GIB= Gibraltar. B Median sea surface temperatures (SST; °C) calculated for October to April from 2000 to 2022 (blue to red gradient). For comparison the annual averaged global SST is 16.1 °C (years: 1901–2000). The arrow illustrates a deep Cyprus Low (CL) mid-latitude cyclone trajectory after ref. ²². C Relief map with mean annual rainfall isohyets after ref. ^34,46. (mm/year; alternating purple regular lines and dashed lines at 100 mm increment’s). Locations of Soreq and Peqi’in, and rainfall sampling sites. Disks coloured according to the multiannual accumulated rainfall d-excess after ref. ^34,46.