Fig. 5: Simulated δ18O changes during the mid-Holocene.

Changes in δ18O for (a) summer, (b) autumn and (c) annual mean between the mid Holocene without (MHORB) and with (MHGS) Saharan vegetation as simulated by iCESM. Thus, MHORB-MHGS represents reduced Saharan vegetation and increased dust at the end of the Green Sahara. Shadings highlight only changes significantly different at the 5% level using a local (gridpoint) t test. The contours follow the color bar intervals (solid for positive and dashed for negative anomalies; the zero line is omitted). Dots indicate locations of proxy records described in Fig. 1.