Table. 2 Opportunities and threats for different coastal defence options
| Â | Hard measures | Natural measures | Soft measures | Hybrid measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Opportunities | - Availability of advanced engineering options to modify and develop existing hard structures for different purposes with improved performance (BL). - Good financial investment outlook in the near future as hard measure are always a priority for coastal adaptation to climate change85. - High acceptability as it is the standard approach to coastal defence globally (BL). | - Widespread coastal conservation efforts globally (BL). - High awareness of many local communities, policy-makers and private sector in managing and protecting natural habitats (BL). - Ongoing collective international efforts and networks for protecting natural ecosystems to reverse ecosystem degradation86. - Opportunities to create collaborations with indigenous and local communities to improve community-based resource management87. - Opportunities for creating synergies to achieve climate resilience, enhance human wellbeing, and protect biodiversity88. - Alignment of policies with funding support (BL). | - Increased international visibility as 2021−2030 is the United Nation Decade on ecosystem restoration. - Ongoing collective international efforts and networks for restoring natural ecosystems to reverse ecosystem degradation86. - Financial incentives to integrate NbS for coastal defence due to the high maintenance costs of hard structures (BL). - Opportunities for creating synergies to achieve climate resilience, enhance human wellbeing, and protect biodiversity.88 | - Advanced engineering can inspire innovations in the design and improve the acceptability of hybrid measures (BL). - Potential to be globally accepted as a standard approach to coastal adaptation (BL). - Opportunities for creating synergies to achieve climate resilience, enhance human wellbeing, and protect biodiversity (BL). - Alignment of policies with funding support (BL). - Potential of creating interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary approaches to normalise the application of hybrid measures7. |
Threats | - Technological limits of the built structures89.- Possibility of massive failures of built structures due to inappropriate design, construction, maintenance and operation58. - Financial constraints posed by funding availability89. - Institutional limits linked to inadequate governance, limited institutional capacity, lack of political will, and existing laws and procedures89. | - Social/cultural limits to resource management, low local capacity, and difficulty in engaging different stakeholders, education, social beliefs, and worldviews89. - Institutional limits: inadequate governance, limited institutional capacity, lack of political will, existing laws and procedures (BL). - Biological limits: unsuitable environmental and ecological conditions for ecosystem growth (BL). | - Social/cultural limits to resource management limited local capacity, difficulty in integrating different stakeholders, education, social beliefs, and worldviews (BL). - Institutional limits: inadequate governance, limited institutional capacity, lack of political wills, existing laws and procedures (BL). - Biological limits: unsuitable environmental and ecological conditions for ecosystem growth (BL). | - Technological limits of the built structures7. - Improper design, construction, maintenance and operation can lead to massive failures of built structures (BL).- Financial limits of funding (BL). - Social/cultural limits to resource management limited local capacity, difficulty in integrating different stakeholders, education, social beliefs, and worldviews (BL). - Institutional limits: inadequate governance, limited institutional capacity, lack of political wills, existing laws and procedures (BL). - Biological limits: unsuitable environmental and ecological conditions for ecosystem growth (BL). |
