Fig. 2: Conceptual model for study.

Drought exposure during pregnancy indicated (gold sun and red thermometer weather symbols and brown diagram of pregnant woman) hypothesized to predict child outcomes (brown infant diagram) through biological mechanisms of aging and phenotypic plasticity (blue DNA symbol), tested in this study with epigenetic age acceleration (blue forward arrows) using multiple epigenetic clocks, as labeled in Figure as follows: 1st generation clocks (blue clock) – Horvath, Hannum, SkinBlood, identified as lifespan predictors; 2nd generation clocks (green clock) – PhenoAge, GrimAge2, DNAmTL, identified as disease and mortality predictors; 3rd generation pace of aging predictors (yellow clock) – DunedinPACE, DunedinPoAm38; and pediatric clocks (orange clock) – PedBe and Wu, identified as child health and disease predictors.